什么是浪漫主义、理性主义、人文主义。

什么是浪漫主义、理性主义、人文主义。,第1张

浪漫主义Romanticism文艺的基本创作方法之一,与现实主义同为文学艺术上的两大主要思潮。作为创作方法,浪漫主义在反映客观现实上侧重从主观内心世界出发,抒发对理想世界的热烈追求,常用热情奔放的语言、瑰丽的想象和夸张的手法来塑造形象。浪漫主义的创作倾向由来已久,早在人类的文学艺术处于口头创作时期,一些作品就不同程度地带有浪漫主义的因素和特色。但这时的浪漫主义既未形成思潮,更不是自觉为人们掌握的创作方法。浪漫主义作为一种主要文艺思潮,从18世纪后半叶至19世纪上半叶盛行于欧洲并表现于文化和艺术的各个部门。现代浪漫主义思潮是自由精神普遍深入到情感领域的产物中国现代浪漫主义文学思潮萌芽于20世纪初,到"五四"达到高潮由于社会革命的兴起,"五四"浪漫主义思潮发生分化但中国现代浪漫主义文学思潮并没有消失,而是在低谷中探索,它大致沿着两条途径发展,一是由"五四"浪漫主义蜕化出30年代的田园牧歌型的浪漫主义,再到40年代浪漫主义,一度回归文坛中心,新时期则再次复兴,不久它就整体性地消失在80年代中期涌起的现代主义潮流中了;二是与政治结缘,由"革命浪漫主义"蜕变为"文革"时期的伪浪漫主义在梳理中国20世纪浪漫主义文学思潮发展脉络的同时,注意揭示其规律性,并对它成败得失的经验和一些重要的理论问题进行了总结 理性主义、欧洲理性主义(Rationalism)是建立在承认人的理性可以作为知识来源的理论基础上的一种哲学方法,高于并独立于感官感知。一般认为随着笛卡儿的理论而产生,17-18世纪间主要在欧洲大陆上得以传播。同时代相对的另一种哲学方法被称为不列颠经验主义(经验主义中的一派),它认为人类的想法来源于经验,所以知识可能除了数学以外主要来源于经验。这里主要关注的是人类的知识来源以及证实我们所知的一种手段。理性指能够识别、判断、评估实际理由以及使人的行为符合特定目的等方面的智能。理性通过论点与具有说服力的论据发现真理,通过符合逻辑的推理而非依靠表象而获得结论,意见和行动的理由。理性主义及经验主义并非由当时的哲学家,而是后人作出了区分。事实上,有时两者之间的区分并不像人们所说的那么显著。三位主要的理性主义者都认同经验科学的重要性,并且他们在研究方法及形而上学的理论上更接近笛卡儿而不是斯宾诺莎(Baruch Spinoza)和莱布尼兹(Gottfried Leibnitz)。尽管这种区分在著书立作时很有必要,他们在哲学本身来说不是非常有用。人文主义是文艺复兴时期主流社会思潮的核心。“人文主义”“人文精神”“人文思想”没有太大的区别。“人文主义”来源于英文humanise,这个单词根据不同语境的需要也可以被译成“人文”“人本”“人道主义”。文艺复兴时期人文主义的核心思想是:反对中世纪神学抬高神、贬低人的观点,强调人的可贵;反对神学的禁欲主义和来世观念,提倡人们对现实生活的追求;反对宗教束缚和封建等级观念,追求人的个性解放和自由平等;反对中世纪的蒙昧主义,推崇人的经验和理性;提倡人类认识自然,征服自然,以造福人生。

好吧,在这里我只能给你古典音乐,摇滚音乐的还有爵士的介绍了,希望你采纳啊!!很辛苦得我~~~

1摇滚乐

Rock music began in the United States in 1950’s, but it has influenced and in turn been shaped by a broad field of cultures and musical traditions, including gospel music, the blues, country-and-western music, classical music, folk music, electronic music, and the popular music of Asia, Africa, and Latin America In addition to its use as a broad designation, the term rock music commonly refers to music styles after 1959 predominantly influenced by white musicians

There is basic agreement that rock is a form of music with a strong beat, but it is difficult to be much more explicit The Collins Cobuild English Dictionary, based on a vast database of British usage, suggests that rock is a kind of music with simple tunes and a very strong beat that is played and sung, usually loudly, by a small group of people with electric guitars and drums, but there are so many exceptions to this description that it is practically useless

Other major rock-music styles include rock and roll, the first genre of the music; and rhythm-and-blues music (R&B), influenced mainly by black American musicians Each of these major genres encompasses a variety of substyles, such as heavy metal, punk, alternative, and grunge While innovations in rock music have often occurred in regional centers such as New York City; Kingston, Jamaica; and Liverpool, England, the influence of rock music is now felt worldwide

2古典乐

Classical music is probably more familiar than we might at first imagine Indeed, nowadays it is all around us, whether it be in restaurants, supermarkets, lifts, for advertising or as theme and incidental music on television A great deal of film music either directly uses or draws from the 'classical' tradition; a good example of the former might be '2001: Space Odyssey', and of the latter, the many scores John Williams has composed in recent years for such blockbusters as the Star Wars and Indiana Jones trilogies

In the vast and wide-ranging world of 'classical' music there is truly something there for everyone - pieces which once discovered represent the start of an exciting and irresistible journey which will provide a lifetime's listening pleasure For example, those who are particularly excited by hearing instrumentalists working at full stretch will thrill to the likes of Liszt and Paganini, or if something a little more reserved and self-contained is required, the chamber music of Haydn or Mozart would be a good starting point If a full symphony orchestra in overdrive is more to your taste then Tchaikovsky or Richard Strauss could well fit the bill, whereas those who have already warmed to Vivaldi's 'Four Seasons' might well try the music of some of the great Italian's contemporaries such as Handel, Johann Sebastian Bach or Domenico Scarlatti Whatever your tastes may be, there has never been a better time to start building a 'classical' music collection on CD

Any attempt to define what is meant literally by the term 'classical' music is fraught with difficulty How does one encapsulate in just a few words a musical tradition which encompasses such infinite varieties of style and expression, from the monastic intonings of Gregorian chant to the laid-back jazz inflections of Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue, from the elegant poise of Mozart's Eine kleine Nachtmusik to the despairing, heightened emotionalism of Tchaikovsky's "Pathetique" Symphony One is treading on very dangerous ground indeed if one pre-supposes that it is simply 'superior' to other musical types such as popular, jazz, rock and the like, let alone the music of other cultures

In general 'popular' music may be as clear in expression as the longer examples of 'classical' music One important difference, however, lies in the logical connection that exists in 'classical ' music between the beginning and end, with the latter a logical extension and development of the former 'Popular' music, on the other hand, tends to present its material without development, the music ending when interest is exhausted

Sadly, whilst 'classical' music is socially undivisive in itself, it has unfortunately become associated in most people's minds with the intellectual elite Even now, and with certain honourable exceptions, the attending of a 'live' concert can be an intimidating (not to say costly) experience for the uninitiated, especially in that most jealously guarded of establishments, the opera house The wonderful thing about the technological age in which we live, and particularly the advent of the compact disc, is that we can bypass all irrelevant social and intellectual pretence, and enjoy in the comfort of our own home (often at far less cost) some of the finest music ever composed

With such a breathtaking variety of material available, it is an awesome task to know just where to begin your disc collection, and as a result expensive mistakes are often made as tempting looking purchases turn out to be something of a disappointment This is where the Naxos catalogue really comes into its own, and where it is hoped this guide will help prospective purchasers to make an informed choice about the kind of music they are likely to enjoy

The Naxos label provides a library of high quality performances of music by the great masters in modern digital sound; accompanied by authoritative and user-friendly booklet notes and at the lowest possible price There are already nearly 600 titles from which to choose, and with new releases emerging at the rate of about eight every month, even the enthusiastic collector is well and truly catered for With every historical period and genre covered, there is something in the Naxos catalogue for everyone, especially those who wish to build a truly representative collection of the central masterworks in the 'classical' tradition

3爵士

Born in America, jazz can be seen as a reflection of the cultural diversity and individualism of this country At its core are openness to all influences, and personal expression through improvisation Throughout its history, jazz has straddled the worlds of popular music and art music, and it has expanded to a point where its styles are so varied that one may sound completely unrelated to another First performed in bars, jazz can now be heard in clubs, concert halls, universities, and large festivals all over the world

The Birth of Jazz:

New Orleans, Louisiana around the turn of the 20th century was a melting pot of cultures A major port city, people from all over the world came together there, and as a result, musicians were exposed to a variety of music European classical music, American blues, and South American songs and rhythms came together to form what became known as jazz The origin of the word jazz is widely disputed, although it is thought to have originally been a sexual term

Louis Armstrong:

One thing that makes jazz music so unique is that it’s focus on improvisation Louis Armstrong, a trumpet player from New Orleans, is considered the father of modern jazz improvisation His trumpet solos were melodic and playful, and filled with energy that could only result from being composed on the spot A leader of several groups in the 1920s and 30s, Armstrong inspired countless others to make the music their own by developing a personal style of improvisation

Expansion:

Thanks to early records, the music of Armstrong and others in New Orleans could reach a broad radio audience The music’s popularity began to increase as did its sophistication, and major cultural centers around the country began to feature jazz bands Chicago, Kansas City, and New York had the most thriving music scenes in the 1940s, where dance halls were filled with fans that came to see large jazz ensembles This period is known as the Swing Era, referring to the lilting “swing” rhythms employed by the Big Bands

Bebop:

Big Bands gave musicians the opportunity to experiment with different approaches to improvisation While members of a Big Band, saxophonist Charlie Parker and trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie began to develop a highly virtuosic and harmonically advanced style known as "Bebop," an onomatopoeic reference to the rhythmic punches heard in the music Parker and Gillespie performed their music in small ensembles all over the country, and musicians flocked to hear the new direction jazz was taking The intellectual approach and technical facility of these pioneers of Bebop has set the standard for today’s jazz musicians

Jazz Today:

Jazz is a highly developed art form that continues to evolve and expand in numerous directions The music of each decade sounds fresh and distinct from the music that preceded it Since the days of bebop, the jazz scene has included avant-garde music, Latin jazz, jazz/rock fusion, and countless other styles Jazz today is so diverse and broad that there is something unique and interesting about every artist’s style

意思是有浪漫主义情怀的人。

浪漫主义者是就是指有浪漫主义情怀的人,具备乐观的态度、开朗的性格、奔放的激情、丰富的想象。

“浪漫主义”一词指一种文学上的基本创作方法,与现实主义相对,强调用热情奔放的语言、瑰丽的想象和夸张的手法来塑造形象。

american romanticism is one of the most important periods in the hisory of american literature

it was a rebellion against the objectivity of rationalismfor romantics,the feelings ,intuitions and emotions were more important than reason and common sense they emphasized individualism,placing the individual against thegroupthey affirmed the inner life of the self, and cherished strong interest in the past,the wild,the romotethe mysterious ans the strangethey stressed the element americanness in their works

it started with the publication of washington irving's the sketch bool and ended of american literatureit is also called the american renaissance

american romanticists include such literary figures as washington irvingralph waldo emersonhenry david thoreau,william cullenbryant,henry wordsworth longfellow,nathaniel hawthorne,edgar allen poe ,herman melville,walt whitman and some others

2]]in the field of literature ,the enlightement movement brought about a revival of interest in the old classical works

the tendency is known as neoclssicismthe neoclaaicists held that forms of literature wer to be modeled after the classical works of the ancient greek and roman weiters such as homer and virgil and those of the contemporary french ones

they believed that the artistic ideals should be order,logic,restrained emotion and accuracy,and that literature should be judged in terms of its service to humanity

bucongnidian

about british romanticism

in the mid-18th century,a new literary movement called romanticism came to europe and then to england

it was characterized by a strong protest against the bondage of neoclassicism,which emphasized reason,order and elegant witinstead,romanticism gave primary concern to passion,emotion,and natkural beautysin the history of literature ,romanticism is generally regarded as the thought that designatesa literary and philosophical theory which tends to see the individual as the very center of all life and all experience

the english romantic period is an age of poetry major romantic poets include blake ,wordsworth,coleridge,byron,shelley and keatsromanticism prevailed in england from 1798 to 1837

First,As for the theme, the realism literature originates from the real life, the essential characteristic emphasis is also the reappearance real life original condition But the romantic literature originates from the myth, legend and nature, what the substantive characteristics stressed displays the life, displays the people to the life the fantasy and the ideal, stems from the life, and is higher than the life

Second, he works themes speaking, the most significant realism literature the style feature is its honesty, mainly in its authenticity and objectivity two aspects Romantic literature will be full of ideal colour, with strong subjective, presenting the fantasy and emotion as the basic characteristics

Thirdly, expression is concerned, realism literature special attention to realistic uncluttered and details of characterization, a realistic morphological construction art world give realism literature has brought a unique artistic glamour Romantic literature is through exaggeration, imagine, the symbol of the expressional technique, high-we vigour, majestic passion

Four, characters will tell, realism literature is through typical characters to depict the works The typical character make realism literary works created, in whole personality performance process shows certain social lasting, highly aesthetic values of characters And romantic literature embody characters of main is a hero, legend

To put it simply, is a neoclassical model of ancient Greece and Rome for the content of the unity of beauty and formal beauty In the classical, where the objects described in the basic wisdom is pretty strong Romanticism and realism are the same strain Romanticism of the word, such as the origin of the first floor said the Roman The basic meaning of the word is impossible to tell a story This constitutes a form of content is greater than For example, Notre Dame's Quasimodo, I personally think that Zhuangzi write those strangely shaped body of the Romantic Road are also the image Romantic realism in relation to content and form of the unity in reality It is different from the classical description of the object can be ugly, as long as is true Zola to become a reality there, and can be used to write n pages of a woman's buttocks Seeking to achieve the effect of painting and even anatomymodernism is

路易十五时代的路易十四在1715年,他的重孙子路易十五(1715年至1774年)的死亡,登基,当时年仅5岁,由摄政王奥尔良公爵。路易十五的法国专制政治危机公开暴露出来。路易十四去世,留下24十亿锂国债,其中1/3已经到期,国家财政1715纯收入只有69万只锂财政支出达到1447亿锂,国家财政是很大的困难。 1716国家预算的赤字近100万只锂。政府试图打击投机和高利贷的名义收取罚款,但只拿到10多万只锂。

为了解决财政困难,奥尔良公爵,聘请了约翰·劳埃德财政改革。约翰·劳埃德是苏格兰银行家。 1716年,他创办了一家私人银行,发行的银行票据,银行票据现金支付国家税收作为有效的。在1718年,约翰·劳埃德的银行,被宣布为国家银行的信誉大大提高了。政府和贵族的银行票据,以偿还其债务。约翰·劳埃德是西印度公司股票的问题,该公司享有的权利,贸易,殖民主义,种植烟草的销售到美洲。这在法国引起投机狂潮,成为暴发户了。约翰·劳埃德从那时起水泥,并于1720年晋升为财政大臣。然而,这种改革,没有坚实的经济基础,结果,法国的财政状况陷入更大的混乱。到1720年年底,银行约翰·劳3000000000锂资源储量的银行发行的钞票是只有700万锂。消息传出后,引起狂热的黄金和白银交易所,约翰·劳埃德逃离国家和银行倒闭。许多银行票据持有人的贵族,富商破产了。尽管使用银行票据,以偿还大部分债务,但在这种情况下,只好恢复旧的金融体系,使社会各阶层的不满。

1723年路易十五亲政,但国家财政没有改善。路易十五奢侈,法院支出占国家的财政收入的三分之一。的贵族集团仿效奢侈的宫廷生活。首相后继的一次改革融资,但最终未能挽救危机。下层民众生活在贫困之中,社会的阶级矛盾。

路易十五继承了路易十四的扩张主义政策的不断发动对外战争。参加了在波兰王位继承战争,奥地利王位继承战争,以失败而告终,并退出占领的比利时,荷兰等地。法国遭遇惨败在七十年战争(1756-1763),失去的电子商务网站,在加拿大,俄亥俄河流域,路易斯安那州,塞内加尔。印度失去了一个大的殖民地,只留下五电子商务网站。七年战争英国建立了殖民霸权,而法国的大国地位受到严重损害。长期食用大量法国的国力,法国的对外战争陷入危机的专制。

18世纪的法国社会和经济条件和阶级关系在18世纪的法国,仍然是一个封建专制的农业国。绝大多数集中在手中的贵族和僧侣国王为首的国家土地。农民占全国人口的95%以上,基本上是一个佃农,耕种土地的地主。从18世纪初,法国东北部地区开始出现了资本主义农场,但在一般情况下,资本主义的生产关系,与英国,深到农村地区。

18世纪,在法国资本主义的发展在相当大的程度上。在一些工业较发达的城市和地区,如里昂,奥尔良,阿尔萨斯 - 洛林,那里有很多的性质的资本主义手工工场,手工工场的就业一千多工人分散就业100人集中的手工工场是不罕见的。到了18世纪中叶,一些工业部门,如采矿,冶炼等行业已经开始使用国家的最先进的机器。在贸易方面,鲁昂,AIKS,亚眠,波尔多,许多城市的对外贸易的中心。法国外交部主要出口葡萄酒和奢侈品。进口商品,如棉花,香料,皮革,咖啡。法国商业的繁荣,集中一半以上的欧洲货币。

但是,资本主义工商业的发展,在法国的封建生产关系的许多障碍。在法国,金融资本在资本主义发展的过程中始终处于领先地位。在包的第16世纪的税务系统,和美国国债系统的实施是的主要手段原始的积累的资本在法国,通过数据包收到国家责任,到了国家的钱贷款人,法国的金融资本家得到一个巨大的数额的收入为法国社会最富有的阶层。但是,路易十六登基以来,以各种手段,以减轻他们的金融危机,从金融资本家手中的拿钱,使君主制和资产阶级的破坏,因为路易十一的合作关系,迫使金融资本家代表的资产类也开始反对封建专制的道路上。在工业领域,由于封建行会制度的存在,大量的手工业作坊不能过渡到一个手工业作坊。公会系统保护的封建制度,也有严格的限制,工匠和学徒的数量,规模生产和技术。范围的工业和法规,制定了到18世纪路易十四时代,不仅不能促进生产力的发展,和他们成为生产发展的桎梏中解放出来。法国工业的发展和技术的进步,再加上各省之间的法律,度量衡,货币等的残余封建存在的,很难有不同的困难领先的商业联系的。残酷的剥削和压迫的封建专制制度,农民占绝大多数的国家的人口生活在极端贫困,购买力非常低的水平,国内市场萎缩。 18世纪以来,法国迭戈在对外战争的失败,不仅国库,困难和损失,许多海外市场。只有在七十年的战争,在北美,包括加拿大,大殖民地,殖民地的印度,法国,英国占领。到法国的王室,贵族的带领下,在各级,法国贸易和工业敛财的一个重要来源,工业和商业征收重税流动在他们手中,大多数工厂的老板和商人的利润,这大大限制了资本的积累。这一切,在法国的新兴资本主义与旧的封建的生产关系,生产关系之间的矛盾十分尖锐。

革命前的法国,仍然保持着严格的封建等级制度。在这个制度下,所有的人都分为三个层次。第一个层次是一名罗马天主教神父,和第二个层次是贵族,资产阶级,农民,城市贫民和手工工场的工人构成了第三级。

天主教会的法国封建专制制度的精神支柱。为了维护封建专制制度,天主教会尽一切努力敏感的人口封建迷信,封建主义制度存在的合理性,提倡人们保持一天的生活态度,没有做丝毫反抗。 “异端”反天主教教会和封建制,实行的残酷迫害。天主教会反对科学,扼杀知识,落实急需蒙昧主义。因此,资本主义的发展,解放人们的思想,你必须先铲除天主教会。天主教会是法国最大的封建领主。教会土地占土地总,喇嘛和其他封建贵族,雇农的剥削,压榨封建租金的1/10。主教大多出身贵族,主要集中在城市,像一个贵族过着奢侈的生活。但低阶修士在一年级主要是出生在一个贫穷的家庭,他们收入低,生活贫困,并有敌视态度的高僧大德,同情三年级。

第二级的贵族,分为两个类,一个佩剑桂家庭“,长袍贵族。所谓的佩剑桂家庭的主要手段是世袭的封建贵族,大部分大贵族他们远离自己的国土,住在凡尔赛宫,依靠养老金生活很奢侈的生活方式。由于他们拥有垄断地位,在军队,政府和教会的特权。佩剑桂家庭“中小大小贵族,多年生活在农村,虽然不是大贵族的奢华生活享受,但由于直接剥削农民,成为农村的封建专制的主要代表。

“袍贵族”是不是世袭贵族,贵族头衔的钱购买。因此,他们大多是从资产阶级。法官袍贵族的各级法院,并可以给儿子的父亲。包揽诉讼,他们挤在财富的人,也过着放荡的生活。的佩剑桂家庭“,歧视他们,但不允许他们进入法院。因此,他们也不满的”佩剑桂家庭。

三年级的成分更为复杂。资产阶级,但中,小之分。大资产阶级包税商,军火商,特许经营,银行家。这些人与封建专制的政府有着千丝万缕的联系,有时他们还花钱买爵位的,长袍贵族。因此,他们并不想推翻独裁政府。然而,由于政治,他们不拥有任何权力,而不是封建政府,并保证资产的经济活动往往是贵族或国王的干扰,所以他们反对革命需要改善只是希望通过双方的根本利益,未触及下,限制国王权力,并提高他们的政治地位。中产阶层是主要的手工业作坊业主和商人。封建专制的政府的压迫和勒索,资本主义工商业的发展,渴望被大大阻碍。因此,他们强烈要求废除了封建制度,建立资产阶级共和国,以保护资本主义的自由经济。这些人构成了资产阶级共和派。

小资产阶级主要是城镇居民。这些人主要是小商贩和小作坊主。这些人不仅对大资产阶级的压迫他们,他们痛恨封建专制的无限利用它们。但他们也反对无产者,害怕革命的无产阶级摆脱旧的政治和经济地位,损害他们的利益。

第三个层次,数量最多的农民。他们遭受残酷的封建剥削,不仅向政府支付租金给房东,但各种苛捐杂税向地主交纳。此外,他们还必须向国王缴纳所得税(收入的1/20的土地税),人头税,土地税,支付什一税的教会。经过层层盘剥,农民耗尽,这是难以维持温饱。在18世纪后期,法国进入“封建反动”的历史时期。国王已经返回徭役农民建设道路和建筑的兵营。房东正在努力改善的封建租金,也篡夺了公共土地的农村公社,使广大农民更加贫困。爆发的法国大革命前夕在法国的23万农民,150万的乞丐竞争。因此,在小学三年级,农民是最讨厌的封建专制制度的革命精神,最富有的。在第三级在各级之间的矛盾,而且反对封建的系统是一致的。因此,国王为首的第三级,僧侣和贵族之间不可调和的矛盾,只有通过暴力革命来解决。

启蒙的18世纪法国启蒙运动,是承诺,以满足资产阶级和广大的劳动人民反对封建专制。这是一些资产阶级思想家,思想的人从拘留的封建专制和宗教神学的解放发动了一场解放运动。他们激烈地批评指责封建专制和腐朽,反动的性质,教会,国王为首的封建贵族占有了所有的社会财富,而在极端贫困中的人的呻吟。他们反对宗教迷信,指出上帝是不存在的,“圣经”是编造的,是一个神圣的奇迹牧师任意编造的谎言。他们倡导个性解放和要求应完全自由。启蒙思想家表明破坏的封建制度,主张社会改革的必要性,并提出了未来的社会中更好地了解。

开发的基础上,17世纪的理性主义的思想启蒙。笛卡尔理性主义哲学的代表数字,尽管他的哲学是唯心论,他建议采用合理的,而不是神的启示和人的分析论证,而不是神的偶像崇拜的思想,打破了天主教会的精神和文化的垄断有一个显着的进步。作为一个理性的和批判性的思想家,合理的原则,而不是权威和传统的原则,提出了过去,包括旧的传统宗教和国家政体应研究。这种理性和批判精神的启蒙运动,是最突出的特点。此外,发生的启示,同时也得到了自然的发展,18世纪的欧洲社会契约的权力,分权理论。启蒙运动的爆发资产阶级革命,并吸引群众参加革命的推动,在法国大革命中发挥了重要作用是不同的英国革命,彻底扔掉披着宗教外衣,采取的形式公开的政治斗争。

启蒙运动的开拓者和奠基人伏尔泰(1694-1778)和孟德斯鸠(1689年至1775年)。他们的教义反映了大资产阶级的要求,的温和派属于资产阶级,大资产阶级大革命,建立君主立宪制的指导思想。

伏尔泰原名弗兰?,OIS玛丽阿鲁埃。浩丰他的书,涉及其他方面的政治,哲学,文学,历史,科学和自然科学。 “哲学大辞典”,路易十四“,在不同的民族风情和精神”,在他的杰作。伏尔泰无情地批评天主教教会作为一个精神支柱的封建制,口号“摧毁丑闻”,公开反对教会的宗教迷信,宗教迫害和人的无知,以及对各种社会弊病指出,所有这些弊病在于天主教会欺骗。他谴责天主教教会是一个“九头鸟”,教皇是一个“骗子”。天主教牧师“文明恶棍。他的政治倡导者按照英国的宪法君主制的例子,主张自然权利交给人在法律面前,平等的所有,废除权限,限制王权。但是,因为他站立的位置中大资产阶级,思想上,经常发生矛盾,他批评天主教会的一方面,但是,社会的不平等是不可改变的现象,一方面,提倡的“自然权利”的人,但人们的回报是“暴民”没有自己的能力,管理自己的需要“聪明人”的监护权。伏尔泰的二元性的社会和政治的角度来看,反映的模糊性的大资产阶级在反对封建专制的斗争和妥协的态度。

孟德斯鸠出身贵族,曾担任当地高等法院的法官,他的主要作品包括“法的精神”,“波斯人信札”,罗马上升和下降的原因。孟德斯鸠和伏尔泰(Voltaire) ,很坚决地反对天主教教会的思想专制。在他的书,狠狠地批评和嘲笑的天主教教会和教会的残忍和不称职的。与此同时,他强烈反对专制和残暴的特权阶层。然而,他不主张废除君主制,法国应仿效英国,建立君主立宪制,他的政治思想反映在他的著作“法的精神”。在这项工作中,因此,孟德斯鸠,立法,行政和司法权力,可以限制君主制,是没有必要的一场革命来实现这一目标。这样的想法,后来利用立宪党人的革命,并体现在“世界人权宣言”和1791年的宪法。

代表的中产阶级经济学家魁奈Encyclopedists的重农学派的启蒙思想家狄德罗(1713年至1784年),主要代表的Encyclopedists,霍尔巴赫(1723年至1789年),爱尔维修(1715年至1771年。 ),以及其他反映他们的政治思想狄德罗主编的“科学,艺术和工艺百科全书”,因此,他们被称为“Encyclopedists,。百科全书是在16世纪的法国大革命的代表,最有代表性的唯物论和无神论的时代。然而,他们的唯物主义是机械的,形而上学的。他们认为,自然世界是物质的,而不是超自然的上帝的存在。通过百科全书出版的关于自然和科学文化知识,教人以公开的宗教封建迷信的荒谬,批评的无知和残酷的天主教教会和牧师,而宗教是用来提高价值被压迫的国王人。讨论的社会现象,他们使用的机械唯物主义观点,即封建制是不合格的人,资本主义制度是人类理性的政治制度。从这个观点出发,他们提出了王权应限制在最低限度,换句话说,这是一个君主立宪制国家,但不一定要采取的手段的革命。魁奈(1694年至1774年),古典政治经济学的代表之一,主要作品包括“经济表”。他是一个经济学家的一个系统的了解和分析资本主义生产过程的剩余价值。他极力推崇经济自由资产阶级思想和创造性的论述了再生产理论。

启蒙思想家的小资卢梭(1712-1778),代表他们的利益。卢梭出生在日内瓦钟表匠家早年因为家境贫寒,生活的生活徘徊,有着深刻的体会下层人民的痛苦和情绪。因此,他的观点则更为激进和革命。 “爱弥儿”社会契约论“,”论不平等的原因和基本人权,在他的名著“忏悔录”。卢梭认为,私有财产是人类的不平等和一切罪恶和不幸的根源。因此,在他的著作中,他强烈批评了现有的在社会上的穷人和富人之间的差距。但卢梭主张消灭私有制,并通过一个小型私人所有权保留希望达到的目的,经济上的平等。政治思想,他提出的“社会契约论”和“人民主权”的理论。他认为,为了维护人类社会的自由和平等,并建立一个国家应该是社会契约的原则。路易十六“我的国家”的谬论之王,而不是人的主人,但人民的仆人,不称职的公务员,按照自己的意愿取代他的人。 “主权在民”的基本原则,卢梭的政治思想的理论。卢梭和伏尔泰和孟德斯鸠,他极力主张推翻的专制君主制,建立一个民主共和国。卢梭的思想有很大的影响,在以后的雅各宾革命。

启示,也出现了一些思想家,以反映较低的群众革命的要求,最有代表性的梅里叶(1664年至1729年),马正丁基锂(1700年至1785年)和:鄚来蜊(生卒年不详)等。集团与机械唯物主义思想家和乌托邦的共产主义色彩。梅花离开他的杰作,“遗书”,谴责私有财产,私有制和社会不平等是万恶之源,是祭司,投机者,官员都称为“富裕的懒虫”说,封建地主的“魔鬼”。他主张在社会中,每个人都应该做对社会有益的事情,和社会财富的应该是广大市民的共同享受。号召人民起来革命,推翻封建专制制度。没来由李在他的著作“自然码应该废除私有财产,建立一个平等的共产主义社会。但他不主张革命要实现这一目标,但他的主张就可以实现,只要消除社会偏见和谬误。马狗不理以梅里叶大致相同。他认为,只有通过消除社会不平等,以消除暴政和邪恶在他的书“的原则,法律规则或法律的”和“的力量公民和义务,马狗不理描绘了他的理想共和国的画面:在这个共和国中,“所有人都是平等的,每个人都是自由的,所有的人兄弟,禁止拥有的财产是共和国的第一部法律。”不过,他提出了不切实际,理想国,不能建立在当时的社会条件下,只能建立在一个荒岛上。这种乌托邦式的共产主义意识形态,它是反映了广大人民群众的劳动人民在社会的现实绝望。

自启蒙运动以来,被称为18世纪的“启蒙时代”。启蒙运动是自文艺复兴以来的思想解放运动,和较高的理性主义的基础上进行。在理性主义的旗帜下,启蒙运动的思想家们的封建专制主义的神圣外衣 - 天主教会和天主教会,以及在神圣的外衣下的封建统治阶级的一切活动,都在理性主义的平衡,让人民群众自己的思考和判断,揭露虚伪性和欺骗性。启蒙运动的哲学前提,社会应该建立上述的法律性质。启蒙思想家既然上帝不存在,授予权限,那么这个人是天生的平等和自由,追求幸福的,生存是每个人的权利,是任何人都不可分离的。有头脑的人的自然权利对抗,否定了封建特权,对人类的启蒙运动最重要的贡献。启蒙运动提倡科学,反对蒙昧主义,也发挥了重要作用。伏尔泰,狄德罗等人在反对封建专制制度的同时,还自然科学狂热的拥护者和倡导者。胜利在三年级的未来有信心的新的社会启蒙思想家描绘了一个美好的蓝图,法国大革命的到来做好充分的准备。为了动员民众参加革命,促进了法国大革命的发展,起到了非常重要的作用。尽管他们的思想反映政治和阶级的不同派别的要求,但是对于法国大革命的整个过程,每个阶段都可以发现其踪迹启蒙思想家的影响。与此同时,法国的启蒙运动,资产阶级革命在欧洲和美国,也产生了不同程度的影响。

消极浪漫主义 passive romanticism

浪漫主义的一种倾向,与积极浪漫主义相对立,又叫做被动的浪漫主义或反动的浪漫消极浪漫主义反映着没落阶级的生活态度和思想情绪。它怀恋过去,逃避现实,经常运用的题材多是死的恐怖、个人的哀怨和冥思遐想等,在作品中表现出低沉抑郁的悲观主义情调

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