英国出名的景点有哪些?
一、伦敦
在伦敦有很多值得一看的景点,经过多次辩论后,评委们选出了该市三个必看景点。
伦敦塔(Tower of London)和伦敦塔桥展览馆(Tower Bridge Exhibition)都为游客提供全方位的顶级体验。
与此同时,土木工程师学会的基础设施学习中心(Infrastructure Learning Hub)因“最佳故事”而受到赞誉。
二、东北部
在英格兰东北部,八个景点获得了荣誉。
位于达勒姆的冒险谷家庭探险公园和霍尔山农场受到称赞,这里欢迎所有年龄段的游客。
Head of Steam,前身为达灵顿铁路中心和博物馆,是一座铁路博物馆。
三、西北部
切斯特动物园(Chester Zoo),它是各种动物的家园,有老虎、企鹅、大猩猩等。
此外还有利物浦的Mersey隧道之旅,以及RSPB Dee Estuary自然保护区也获得了高分。
四、东部
在英格兰东部,VisitEngland的评委认可了12个景点。
剑桥的奇尔福德庄葡萄园(Chilford Hall Vineyard),英格兰最古老的葡萄园之一,因其详尽的酿酒故事而受到称赞。
位于诺福克郡费克纳姆的Creake Abbey,因其提供美味的食物和饮料而获得赞许,热情好客的海洋生物探险水族馆也受到客人的称赞。
五、海峡群岛
海峡群岛上有三个景点引起了评委的注意。
圣劳伦斯的汉普顿乡村生活博物馆(Hamptonne Country Life Museum),这是个古色古香的景点,洞察了泽西岛几个世纪以来的农村生活。
泽西岛格鲁维尔的La Hougue Bie博物馆(La Hougue Bie Museum)是世界上最古老的建筑之一。
圣赫利尔的泽西博物馆及美术馆则描绘了泽西的历史。
六、约克郡
在约克郡,三个景点获得了赞誉。
有惠特比的库克船长纪念博物馆、RSPB Blacktoft Sands自然保护区,以及利兹的埃默代尔乡村旅游(Emmerdale Village Tour),在约克郡很受欢迎。
七、东南部
英格兰东南部共有12个旅游景点赢得了评委的赞誉。
位于牛津的Mini工厂,吸引了人们来参观汽车的生产组装。
八、西米德兰兹郡
在西米德兰兹郡,16个景点赢得了赞誉。
有位于伯明翰的17世纪阿斯顿霍尔豪宅及斯托克的艾玛布里奇沃特陶器工厂。
伯明翰的吉百利世界(Cadbury World)则提供了全方位乐趣,有工厂参观和巧克力品尝等。
参考资料:
英国Leedssunderlandyork的详细资料
Leeds(中文:利兹),英国英格兰西约克郡利兹市的大城市。依傍亚耳河(River Aire)旁的里兹,是利兹市(City of Leeds)的市区核心,也是该市的行政中枢所在地。根据2001年人口统计,利兹人口为443,247人,而整个里兹市则有726,939人。
利兹早中世纪时代已有史实记载。当时利兹乃一个农产品交易市场,专门销售羊毛制品。十七世纪末利兹人口有30,000人,但十八世纪已增至三万人。工业革命期间开始成为工业城市。1816年建成了运河连接利物浦,1848年有铁路贯通。当时已有纺织业、化工、皮革和陶瓷,并且是采煤中心。
二次大战以降利兹制造业开始式微。1951年仍有一半人口从事制造业,但1971年只剩下三成;1971-81年间已流失了三成制造业职位。但是仍有一些大型工程公司设於利兹市。
今天,利兹作为在西约克郡占支配地位的区域中心城市,而被列为8个英格兰核心城市之一。
利兹被英国官方评为英国营商环境最佳城市,主要以服务业为主流。以往利兹的制造业,早在二次大战以后式微。利兹尤其以金融业称著,地位仅次於首都伦敦。主要的服务业包括零售、客户中心、写字楼和传媒机构。四分一人口从事金融业。
交通
由於利兹市位处英国中部,属内陆地区,铁路系统对利兹交通,仍有举足轻重的影响。利兹市有两条铁路路线直通首都伦敦,一般班次为半小时至一小时一班。国家其他地方利兹市也有贯通,包括到西约克郡等等。同时利兹市也有多条道路网连接英国各大城市,如A58、A61、A62、A63、A64和A65公路等等。
旅游
旅游是利兹的一大产业,制造了二万个职位。平均计利兹市可吸纳一百四十万人过夜,每人消费加起来,差不多已有7亿三千五百万英镑。主要游客都是到来参观利兹市的文化景色。
利兹市被英国一个杂志社选为「英国最受欢迎城市」,以其彰显了英国的正面形象。
体育
列斯是英格兰老牌球会列斯联的所在地,列斯联是英格兰第一间球会,夺得欧洲博览会杯冠军。
购物
Victoria Quarter
Leeds Kirkgate Market
夜生活
利兹拥有大量学生人口,有不少酒吧、夜总会和餐馆
宗教
基督教
利兹的大多数居民自称是基督徒
犹太教
利兹拥有英国第三大犹太社团,仅次于伦敦和曼彻斯特
印度教
利兹的小型印度教团体在海德公园有一座印度教庙宇
佛教
利兹拥有几种不同派别的佛教
教育
利兹大学Parkinson大楼利兹拥有数目众多的小学、中学和高等教育机构,Education Leeds负责该市年轻人的法定教育。
利兹拥有2所大学:利兹大学(University of Leeds),拥有31,500名全日制学生(还有52,000人接受短期培训),和利兹城市大学 (Leeds metropolitan University) 2006年末,利兹城市大学的学生总数超过了52,000多人。号称全英拥有学生数最多的大学。
Sunderland(中文:桑德兰或新兰)是位於英格兰泰恩-威尔郡的城市。
从前在本市发展蓬勃的重工业逐站被淘汰,新的轻工业工厂进驻了本市,例如日产汽车工厂。
在1990年后,威尔河的两岸重新发展,在原建有船厂的位置兴建了新兴住宅、零售中心及商业区。在重建的时候也兴建了国家玻璃中心 (National Glass Centre) 及新特兰大学。
在第二次世界大战中,新特兰是英格兰被纳粹德军轰炸的最严重的地方之一。幸好不少有历史价值的旧建筑不受影响,得以保留下来。
地理
市大多数部分位於与海岸平行的山脉上,位於海拔约80米。新特兰被威尔河在市中心分隔。
交通
A19公路途经。
泰恩威尔地铁在市内设有很多车站。
英国国铁及泰恩威尔地铁的新特兰站。
体育
本市唯一的职业运动队是现时在英超左赛的新特兰联会足球会。他们的主场是位於市内的光明球场,领队为前曼联球员坚尼。他们是英格兰老牌球队,但在近年成绩下滑,沦为升降机。新特兰和同在泰恩-威尔郡的纽卡素是宿敌,两支球队的交手称为泰恩-威尔打比。
York(中文:约克),英国英格兰约克郡-亨伯北约克郡有城市地位的单一管理区,位于乌斯河(Ouse River)河畔、利兹东北偏东,起初为盖尔人的居点,后为罗马人、盎格鲁人、丹麦人和诺曼人占领。中世纪该城是繁荣的羊毛市场和教育中心,其大主教地位仅次于坎特伯雷大主教。市区人口约为137,505人(2001年)。
至於在行政区划方面,1996年4月1日时设置的约克市(City of York)则包含了传统上的约克市区与一些邻近的教区,是英格兰的郡级行政单位——单一管理区(Unitary authority)——之一,隶属於约克郡-亨伯,并具有自治市地位。根据2006年的统计,整个约克市行政区内的人口约有186,800人。
约克传统上是与其同名的约克郡首府,然而,它并不属於组成约克郡之三个巡区(Ridings)的任何一部份。现代的约克市设立於1996年4月1日,是一个拥有自治城市地位的单一管理区,其范围除了传统上的约克市区本身之外,许多以前属于周遭哈罗盖特(Harrogate)、拉伊代尔(Ryedale)与塞尔比(Selby)等几个区的教区,也在行政区改制时被划入约克市的范围之内。约克市的周围大部分是被北约克郡所包围,东侧则是另一个单一管理区、约克郡东瑞丁(East Riding of Yorkshire)。除此之外,北约克郡也是约克市的名誉郡(ceremonial county)。
约克与罗马帝国及维京人有很深的渊源,其建城历史可以回溯到西元71年,曾是罗马下不列颠(Britannia Inferior)的首府。丰富的历史资产带动了约克的观光业,每年多达两百万的游客使约克成为除伦敦以外,游客最多的英格兰城市。约克同时也以其巧克力工业及约克大学而著名。
本市有时会遭受洪水侵袭。
罗马时期的约克
约克因其历史而著名, 历史也被保存在它的建筑中 这个城市建立於西元71年, 在之后很长的一段期间里, 一直是英格兰北部的主要城市 每一年都有成千上万的游客聚集在这里,造访幸存的中世纪建筑, 和点缀其间的罗马和维京人遗迹 约克市政厅有27个保护区, 至少照料了2084个已登记在案的建筑和27处预计中的古代遗迹。
对古罗马而言, 约克("Eboracum")是一个主要的军事基地;罗马皇帝赛佛勒斯,和罗马帝国君士坦丁一世的父亲君士坦提阿斯分别於西元211年和306年驾崩於此。君士坦丁大帝在约克被军队拥立为皇帝(另一个会有皇帝被拥立的地方只有罗马当地)。主要的罗马遗迹被发现於约克大教堂底下,另一个被重建的罗马石柱现矗立於Deangate。这里还保留了一个罗马浴室,后来又挖掘出一个神庙和欧斯河上罗马古桥遗址。城墙外是牢固的罗马公墓。大量罗马发现品现在收藏在约克郡博物馆。
7世纪初,Paulinus of York将基督教带到这个地区,国王Edwin of Northumbria皈依,第一个大教堂据信建于627年,尽管早期大教堂的位置还在 争论。约克成为一个学习中心,最著名的学生是Alcuin
维京时期的约克
关於维京时期的约克, 请参阅 维京时期
西元866年, 一支"强大的维京人军队"占领了约克,876年之后, 维京人长期定居於约克郡部分乡间 维京人国王统治这个地区近一世纪, 在历史学界以约维克的维京王国(The Viking Kingdom of Jorvik)著称。直到西元954年, 最后一位维京国王, Eric Bloodaxe被驱逐,而他的王国则并入新兴的盎格鲁-撒克逊国 在此一时代, 另一位知名的学者是约克大主教伍尔夫斯坦二世
中世纪时期的约克
约克大教堂1066年,诺尔曼征服以后,约克于1069年遭到了“北部恶魔”报复并造成很大的破坏。 英格兰威廉一世,即征服者威廉发动了一系列征对地方起义的报复行动。乌斯河畔各建起了一座城堡。此时,约克逐渐成为一个重要的城市并成为约克郡的行政管理中心。并在这里设立了大主教,在13世纪末和14世纪,这里的主教成为了仅次于皇家政府另一重要的行政机构。它也是重要的贸易中心,在诺尔曼征服后,这里兴建了好几处宗教建筑,包括圣玛丽修道院和圣三一修道院,这座城市也成为皇家所有地,郡守对这里的犹太社区加以切实的保护。
1190年3月16日,一场市民暴动迫使约克的犹太人逃往郡守控制的木制城堡中避难,木制城堡最后被点燃犹太人遭到了屠杀,这极有可能是城里的富豪因为拖欠了犹太人的债务而鼓动市民造成的惨剧,最起码,他们在惨剧到来时袖手旁观,纪念约克大屠杀的犹太礼拜仪式一直延续到1990年,正统的犹太教禁止犹太人居住在这座城市。
中世纪晚期,约克达到了它的鼎盛时期,这反映在建筑环境上。约克大教堂是英格兰最大的中世纪主教座堂和欧洲最大的哥特式教堂之一。中世纪城墙和城门, 即所谓的“长条”环绕着整个城市,至今仍可以看到。
"肉铺街," 约克一角14世纪末和15世纪初,约克被描绘成一片繁荣。在这期间,与圣体节相关的周期性宗教盛会或者表演充斥街头,越来越多的艺人来此卖艺表演。这段时间里,诸多社会名流,诸如老尼古拉斯布莱克伯恩,他是贵族并于1412年担任市长,同时他也是商界领袖。他的形象被刻画在北街诸圣堂东面窗户上。自15世纪末以来,它见证了约克的经济衰退;宗教上,约克的重要性也日趋衰减。在这个世纪内,新市政厅的建设可被视作是对前途未卜的市民信心重建的一种努力。
从中世纪后期一直到现在,约克郡的肉铺街长久以来一直以伸出街檐的肉铺吸引着众多游人,先今,出售纪念品的商店已经取代肉铺。约克也是众多幽灵走道的故乡并且是妇女会特别中意的集会地点。
现代的约克
从城墙上看大教堂除了旅游胜地,约克还是交通枢纽,教育和商业中心。它是一个主要的铁路中转站,是奔宁山脉和英国东海岸的交汇点。
约克也是赛马的主要赛场。约克赛马场位于内维斯迈尔地区。
约克拥有两个生产巧克力的大型工场,罗斯瑞内尔斯特尔和泰瑞,虽然另一家主营炼糖业。约克是奇特凯特,斯玛特里和泰瑞橙味巧克力的故乡,与之齐名的有约克棒。2004年4月,泰瑞宣布它有意停止在约克的巧克力业务。
该市有英国的顶级大学之一(英国约克大学) — 2001年每日电讯报排名第2— 还有一所高等教育学院,约克圣约翰大学,和法学院的一个分校,约克的足球队是英格兰足球联赛的成员,约克的英式橄榄球队名曰约克游侠队。在约克地区有地方性的报纸《约克晚报》。
约克还聚集着大量的酒吧。约克的酒吧之多据说一天去一家一年之内可以不重复,尽管有一点夸大。大概是因为诗歌许可证的缘故,在城墙上的任何一点你都能看到至少一所酒吧和一座教堂。
欧斯河的泛滥使得约克总是处在洪水的威胁之下,约克有着规模庞大,但不一定总有效果的防洪网络。包括沿着欧斯河修建的城墙,和横跨福斯河的河堤(参见福斯河),城内预留了大片为了防备洪水泛滥的空地。也正是基于这个原因,这里有别处所没有的大片绿地。欧斯河沿岸有着洪水滋润着的草地,而城市周边的低洼地带则环绕着沼泽。另一个类似的地方叫做流氓潭。夏天,当它们干涸,这片地被辟为消遣的娱乐场,牛群也在上面吃草。
著名景点(市中心)
The Mallard locomotive, 国立铁路博物馆考古资源中心
Assembly Rooms, a grand Palladian public space designed by Lord Burlington, 1731_32, lies behind a rebuilt 19th century facade
Bar Convent Museum
Barley Hall
克利佛德塔(Clifford's Tower)
约维克中心, 维京城市遗址
英王领地(King's Manor)
商业冒险家会馆(Merchant Advanturers' Hall)
en:Micklegate Bar Museum
国立铁路博物馆(National Railway Meseum)
国立古代音乐中心(National Centre for Early Music), home of the York Early Music Festival
圣玛利修道院(Saint Mary's Abbey)
Treasurer's House
约克城堡博物馆(York Castle Museum)
约克市立美术馆(York City Art Gallery)
约克城中世纪城墙 (含教士门博物馆(Monk Bar Museum))
约克地牢(York Dungeons)
约克大教堂(York Minster)
约克郡博物馆(Yorkshire Museum)
利兹的城市简介
利兹是英国约克夏—横勃塞得地区首府,地区人口为560万,其中劳动力200万,是位于英国经济最发达地区中心的一个商业重镇。市中心为文化和商业区。英格兰中部重要的文化、行政和交通中心之一,有铁路、公路网连接英格兰南部和苏格兰,有运河西通利物浦入爱尔兰海。城西北3千米处的伊登有现代化航空港。设有以医学研究,商科及纺织专业著名的利兹大学(官方REF全英第10,TIMES最新排名全英第14)和图书馆、博物馆、艺术馆以及其他娱乐设施。
横勃塞得地区是150家英国股票上市公司的总部所在地,该地区的中小型公司数目也仅次于英国东南部。这些公司看好利兹,是因为利兹可提供对于贸易至关重要的金融商业服务。
利兹是英国除伦敦外的最高法律中心,其金融和商业的成功发展,使利兹成为英国经济发展最快的城市之一,并且于2010年成为伦敦外英国最大商业金融中心。市中心区约占地1平方英里,有法律区、金融区、商业区、政府机构、2所大学、2家大医院和多个超大型购物中心。
英国黎姿有什么旅游景点
英国利兹风景名胜
市内和周边景点有英国皇家军械博物馆、国家媒体博物馆、霍华德城堡(周杰伦婚礼城堡)、哈伍德宫、利兹工业博物馆、利兹城市博物馆、利兹艺术馆(收藏有亨利摩尔作品)等。
利兹坐落于风景优美的约克郡地区,约克郡谷地国家公园、约克大教堂、查德沃兹庄园、惠特比、峰区都在两小时车程以内。
英国旅游景点排名前十的是:唐宁街十号,英国议会大厦,大本钟,伦敦眼,西敏寺,伦敦塔,塔桥,巨石阵,大英博物馆,巴斯的古罗马遗迹。
1、巴斯的古罗马遗迹
尽管巴斯是英国较小的城市之一,但它有很多可看和可做的事情,足以弥补它的小面积。这座美丽的城市以其著名的罗马浴场命名,两千多年来一直吸引着游客到这里来沐浴。虽然不可能在原来的罗马浴池洗澡,但附近的一些温泉——最著名的是一流的温泉——为客人提供了享受城市著名水域的机会。
2、大英博物馆
英国国家博物馆是世界上历史最悠久、规模最宏伟的综合性博物馆,位于英国伦敦。它收藏了世界各地的许多文物和图书珍品,藏品之丰富、种类之繁多为全世界博物馆所罕见。藏品主要是英国于18世纪至19世纪发起大英博物馆的战争中掠夺得来。主要受害国家包括希腊、埃及及中国等。英国国家博物馆位于伦敦中心,是一座规模庞大的古罗马柱式建筑,十分壮观。
3、英国议会大厦
威斯敏斯特宫,又称议会大厦,为世界文化遗产,是英国议会(包括上议院和下议院)的所在地。威斯敏斯特宫是哥特复兴式建筑的代表作之一,也是英国浪漫主义建筑的代表作品。
该建筑包括约1,100个独立房间、100座楼梯和48公里长的走廊。尽管今天的宫殿基本上由19世纪重修而来,但依然保留了初建时的许多历史遗迹,如威斯敏斯特厅(可追溯至1097年)、国葬前的陈列等。
4、巨石阵
英国埃夫伯里巨石遗址即巨石阵,又名索尔兹伯里石环、环状列石。由巨大的石头组成,每块约重50吨。它的主轴线、通往石柱的古道和夏至日早晨初升的太阳,在同一条线上;另外,其中还有两块石头的连线指向冬至日落的方向。公元前4000-公元前2000年建造。
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Romanticism (literature)
I INTRODUCTION
Romanticism (literature), a movement in the literature of virtually every country of Europe, the United States, and Latin America that lasted from about 1750 to about 1870, characterized by reliance on the imagination and subjectivity of approach, freedom of thought and expression, and an idealization of nature The term romantic first appeared in 18th-century English and originally meant “romancelike”—that is, resembling the fanciful character of medieval romances
II ORIGINS AND INSPIRATION
By the late 18th century in France and Germany, literary taste began to turn from classical and neoclassical conventions (see Classic, Classical, and Classicism) Inspiration for the romantic approach initially came from two great shapers of thought, French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau and German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
A The Romantic Spirit
Rousseau established the cult of the individual and championed the freedom of the human spirit; his famous announcement was “I felt before I thought” Goethe and his compatriots, philosopher and critic Johann Gottfried von Herder and historian Justus Möser, provided more formal precepts and collaborated on a group of essays entitled Von deutscher Art und Kunst (Of German Style and Art, 1773) In this work the authors extolled the romantic spirit as manifested in German folk songs, Gothic architecture, and the plays of English playwright William Shakespeare Goethe sought to imitate Shakespeare's free and untrammeled style in his Götz von Berlichingen (1773; translated 1799), a historical drama about a 16th-century robber knight The play, which justifies revolt against political authority, inaugurated the Sturm und Drang (storm and stress) movement, a forerunner of German romanticism Goethe's novel The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774; translated 1779) was also in this tradition One of the great influential documents of romanticism, this work exalts sentiment, even to the point of justifying committing suicide because of unrequited love The book set a tone and mood much copied by the romantics in their works and often in their personal lives: a fashionable tendency to frenzy, melancholy, world-weariness, and even self-destruction
B The Romantic Style
The preface to the second edition of Lyrical Ballads (1800), by English poets William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge was also of prime importance as a manifesto of literary romanticism Here, the two poets affirmed the importance of feeling and imagination to poetic creation and disclaimed conventional literary forms and subjects Thus, as romantic literature everywhere developed, imagination was praised over reason, emotions over logic, and intuition over science—making way for a vast body of literature of great sensibility and passion This literature emphasized a new flexibility of form adapted to varying content, encouraged the development of complex and fast-moving plots, and allowed mixed genres (tragicomedy and the mingling of the grotesque and the sublime) and freer style
No longer tolerated, for example, were the fixed classical conventions, such as the famous three unities (time, place, and action) of tragedy An increasing demand for spontaneity and lyricism—qualities that the adherents of romanticism found in folk poetry and in medieval romance—led to a rejection of regular meters, strict forms, and other conventions of the classical tradition In English poetry, for example, blank verse largely superseded the rhymed couplet that dominated 18th-century poetry The opening lines of the swashbuckling melodrama Hernani (1830; translated 1830), by the great French romantic writer Victor Hugo, are a departure from the conventional 18th-century rules of French versification; and in the preface to his drama Cromwell (1827; translated 1896), a famous critical document in its own right, Hugo not only defended his break from traditional dramatic structure but also justified the introduction of the grotesque into art In their choice of heroes, also, the romantic writers replaced the static universal types of classical 18th-century literature with more complex, idiosyncratic characters; and a great deal of drama, fiction, and poetry was devoted to a celebration of Rousseau's “common man”
III THE GREAT ROMANTIC THEMES
As the romantic movement spread from France and Germany to England and then to the rest of Europe and across to the western hemisphere, certain themes and moods, often intertwined, became the concern of almost all 19th-century writers
A Libertarianism
Many of the libertarian (see Libertarianism) and abolitionist movements of the late 18th and early 19th centuries were engendered by the romantic philosophy—the desire to be free of convention and tyranny, and the new emphasis on the rights and dignity of the individual Just as the insistence on rational, formal, and conventional subject matter that had typified neoclassicism was reversed, the authoritarian regimes that had encouraged and sustained neoclassicism in the arts were inevitably subjected to popular revolutions Political and social causes became dominant themes in romantic poetry and prose throughout the Western world, producing many vital human documents that are still pertinent The year 1848, in which Europe was wracked by political upheaval, marked the flood tide of romanticism in Italy, Austria, Germany, and France
In William Tell (1804; translated 1825), by German dramatist Friedrich von Schiller, an obscure medieval mountaineer becomes an immortal symbol of opposition to tyranny and foreign rule In the novel The Betrothed (1825-1827; translated 1834), by Italian writer Alessandro Manzoni, a peasant couple become instruments in the final crushing of feudalism in northern Italy Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley, who for some most typify the romantic poet (in their personal lives as well as in their work), wrote resoundingly in protest against social and political wrongs and in defense of the struggles for liberty in Italy and Greece Russian poet Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin, whose admiration for the work of Byron is clearly manifested, attracted notoriety for his “Ode to Liberty” (1820); like many other romanticists, he was persecuted for political subversion
The general romantic dissatisfaction with the organization of society was often channeled into specific criticism of urban society La maison du berger (The Shepherd's Hut, 1844), by French poet Alfred Victor de Vigny, expresses the view that such an abode has more nobility than a palace Earlier, Rousseau had written that people were born free but that everywhere civilization put them in chains This feeling of oppression was frequently expressed in poetry—for example, in the work of English visionary William Blake, writing in the poem “Milton” (about 1804-1808) of the “dark Satanic mills” that were beginning to deface the English countryside; or in Wordsworth's long poem The Prelude (1850), which speaks of “ the close and overcrowded haunts/Of cities, where the human heart is sick”
B Nature
Basic to such sentiments was an interest central to the romantic movement: the concern with nature and natural surroundings Delight in unspoiled scenery and in the (presumably) innocent life of rural dwellers is perhaps first recognizable as a literary theme in such a work as “The Seasons” (1726-1730), by Scottish poet James Thomson The work is commonly cited as a formative influence on later English romantic poetry and on the nature tradition represented in English literature, most notably by Wordsworth Often combined with this feeling for rural life is a generalized romantic melancholy, a sense that change is imminent and that a way of life is being threatened Such intimations were early evinced in “Ode to Evening” (1747) by William Collins, “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” (1751) by Thomas Gray, and The Borough (1810) by George Crabbe The melancholic strain later developed as a separate theme, as in “Ode on Melancholy” (1820) by John Keats, or—in a different time and place—in the works of American writers: the novels and tales of Nathaniel Hawthorne, which probe the depths of human nature in puritanical New England, or the macabre tales and melancholy poetry of Edgar Allan Poe
In another vein in American literature, the romantic interest in untrammeled nature is found in such writers as Washington Irving, whose Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent (1819-1820), a collection of descriptive stories about the Hudson River valley, reflects the author's knowledge of European folktales as well as contemporary romantic poetry and the Gothic novel The Leather-Stocking Tales by James Fenimore Cooper celebrate the beauty of the American wilderness and the simple frontier life; in romantic fashion they also idealize the Native American as (in Rousseau's phrase) the “noble savage” By the middle of the 19th century the nature tradition was absorbed by American literary transcendentalism, chiefly expressed in the essays of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau
C The Lure of the Exotic
In the spirit of their new freedom, romantic writers in all cultures expanded their imaginary horizons spatially and chronologically They turned back to the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) for themes and settings and chose locales ranging from the awesome Hebrides of the Ossianic tradition, as in the work of Scottish poet James MacPherson (see Ossian and Ossianic Ballads), to the Asian setting of Xanadu evoked by Coleridge in his unfinished lyric “Kubla Khan” (1797) The compilation of old English and Scottish ballads by English poet Thomas Percy was a seminal work; his Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765) exerted a significant influence on the form and content of later romantic poetry The nostalgia for the Gothic past mingled with the tendency to the melancholic and produced a fondness for ruins, graveyards, and the supernatural as themes In English literature, representative works include Keats's “The Eve of St Agnes,” the Gothic novels of Matthew Gregory Lewis, and The Castle of Otranto (1764) by Horace Walpole The Lay of the Last Minstrel (1805), by Scottish writer Sir Walter Scott, and his historical novels, the Waverley series (1814-1825), combine these concerns: love of the picturesque, preoccupation with the heroic past, and delight in mystery and superstition
D The Supernatural
The trend toward the irrational and the supernatural was an important component of English and German romantic literature It was reinforced on the one hand by disillusion with 18th-century rationalism and on the other by the rediscovery of a body of older literature—folktales and ballads—collected by Percy and by German scholars Jacob and Wilhelm Karl Grimm (see Grimm Brothers) and Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen From such material comes, for example, the motif of the doppelgänger (German for “double”) Many romantic writers, especially in Germany, were fascinated with this concept, perhaps because of the general romantic concern with self-identity Poet Heinrich Heine wrote a lyric apocryphally titled “Der Doppelgänger” (1827; translated 1846); The Devil's Elixir (1815-1816; translated 1824), a short novel by E T A Hoffmann, is about a double; and Peter Schlemihl's Remarkable Story (1814; translated 1927), by Adelbert von Chamisso, the tale of a man who sells his shadow to the devil, can be considered a variation on the theme Later, Russian master Fyodor Mikhaylovich Dostoyevsky wrote his famous novel The Double (1846), an analysis of paranoia in a humble clerk
IV DECLINE OF THE TRADITION
By about the middle of the 19th century, romanticism began to give way to new literary movements: the Parnassians and the symbolist movement in poetry, and realism and naturalism in prose
See also American Literature: Poetry; American Literature: Prose; Brazilian Literature; Danish Literature; Dutch Literature; English Literature; French Literature; German Literature; Italian Literature; Latin American Literature; Polish Literature; Portuguese Literature; Russian Literature; Spanish Literature; Swedish Literature
Contributed By:
Robert J Clements
Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2003 © 1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation All rights reserved
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