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Romanticism (literature)

I INTRODUCTION

Romanticism (literature), a movement in the literature of virtually every country of Europe, the United States, and Latin America that lasted from about 1750 to about 1870, characterized by reliance on the imagination and subjectivity of approach, freedom of thought and expression, and an idealization of nature The term romantic first appeared in 18th-century English and originally meant “romancelike”—that is, resembling the fanciful character of medieval romances

II ORIGINS AND INSPIRATION

By the late 18th century in France and Germany, literary taste began to turn from classical and neoclassical conventions (see Classic, Classical, and Classicism) Inspiration for the romantic approach initially came from two great shapers of thought, French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau and German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

A The Romantic Spirit

Rousseau established the cult of the individual and championed the freedom of the human spirit; his famous announcement was “I felt before I thought” Goethe and his compatriots, philosopher and critic Johann Gottfried von Herder and historian Justus Möser, provided more formal precepts and collaborated on a group of essays entitled Von deutscher Art und Kunst (Of German Style and Art, 1773) In this work the authors extolled the romantic spirit as manifested in German folk songs, Gothic architecture, and the plays of English playwright William Shakespeare Goethe sought to imitate Shakespeare's free and untrammeled style in his Götz von Berlichingen (1773; translated 1799), a historical drama about a 16th-century robber knight The play, which justifies revolt against political authority, inaugurated the Sturm und Drang (storm and stress) movement, a forerunner of German romanticism Goethe's novel The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774; translated 1779) was also in this tradition One of the great influential documents of romanticism, this work exalts sentiment, even to the point of justifying committing suicide because of unrequited love The book set a tone and mood much copied by the romantics in their works and often in their personal lives: a fashionable tendency to frenzy, melancholy, world-weariness, and even self-destruction

B The Romantic Style

The preface to the second edition of Lyrical Ballads (1800), by English poets William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge was also of prime importance as a manifesto of literary romanticism Here, the two poets affirmed the importance of feeling and imagination to poetic creation and disclaimed conventional literary forms and subjects Thus, as romantic literature everywhere developed, imagination was praised over reason, emotions over logic, and intuition over science—making way for a vast body of literature of great sensibility and passion This literature emphasized a new flexibility of form adapted to varying content, encouraged the development of complex and fast-moving plots, and allowed mixed genres (tragicomedy and the mingling of the grotesque and the sublime) and freer style

No longer tolerated, for example, were the fixed classical conventions, such as the famous three unities (time, place, and action) of tragedy An increasing demand for spontaneity and lyricism—qualities that the adherents of romanticism found in folk poetry and in medieval romance—led to a rejection of regular meters, strict forms, and other conventions of the classical tradition In English poetry, for example, blank verse largely superseded the rhymed couplet that dominated 18th-century poetry The opening lines of the swashbuckling melodrama Hernani (1830; translated 1830), by the great French romantic writer Victor Hugo, are a departure from the conventional 18th-century rules of French versification; and in the preface to his drama Cromwell (1827; translated 1896), a famous critical document in its own right, Hugo not only defended his break from traditional dramatic structure but also justified the introduction of the grotesque into art In their choice of heroes, also, the romantic writers replaced the static universal types of classical 18th-century literature with more complex, idiosyncratic characters; and a great deal of drama, fiction, and poetry was devoted to a celebration of Rousseau's “common man”

III THE GREAT ROMANTIC THEMES

As the romantic movement spread from France and Germany to England and then to the rest of Europe and across to the western hemisphere, certain themes and moods, often intertwined, became the concern of almost all 19th-century writers

A Libertarianism

Many of the libertarian (see Libertarianism) and abolitionist movements of the late 18th and early 19th centuries were engendered by the romantic philosophy—the desire to be free of convention and tyranny, and the new emphasis on the rights and dignity of the individual Just as the insistence on rational, formal, and conventional subject matter that had typified neoclassicism was reversed, the authoritarian regimes that had encouraged and sustained neoclassicism in the arts were inevitably subjected to popular revolutions Political and social causes became dominant themes in romantic poetry and prose throughout the Western world, producing many vital human documents that are still pertinent The year 1848, in which Europe was wracked by political upheaval, marked the flood tide of romanticism in Italy, Austria, Germany, and France

In William Tell (1804; translated 1825), by German dramatist Friedrich von Schiller, an obscure medieval mountaineer becomes an immortal symbol of opposition to tyranny and foreign rule In the novel The Betrothed (1825-1827; translated 1834), by Italian writer Alessandro Manzoni, a peasant couple become instruments in the final crushing of feudalism in northern Italy Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley, who for some most typify the romantic poet (in their personal lives as well as in their work), wrote resoundingly in protest against social and political wrongs and in defense of the struggles for liberty in Italy and Greece Russian poet Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin, whose admiration for the work of Byron is clearly manifested, attracted notoriety for his “Ode to Liberty” (1820); like many other romanticists, he was persecuted for political subversion

The general romantic dissatisfaction with the organization of society was often channeled into specific criticism of urban society La maison du berger (The Shepherd's Hut, 1844), by French poet Alfred Victor de Vigny, expresses the view that such an abode has more nobility than a palace Earlier, Rousseau had written that people were born free but that everywhere civilization put them in chains This feeling of oppression was frequently expressed in poetry—for example, in the work of English visionary William Blake, writing in the poem “Milton” (about 1804-1808) of the “dark Satanic mills” that were beginning to deface the English countryside; or in Wordsworth's long poem The Prelude (1850), which speaks of “ the close and overcrowded haunts/Of cities, where the human heart is sick”

B Nature

Basic to such sentiments was an interest central to the romantic movement: the concern with nature and natural surroundings Delight in unspoiled scenery and in the (presumably) innocent life of rural dwellers is perhaps first recognizable as a literary theme in such a work as “The Seasons” (1726-1730), by Scottish poet James Thomson The work is commonly cited as a formative influence on later English romantic poetry and on the nature tradition represented in English literature, most notably by Wordsworth Often combined with this feeling for rural life is a generalized romantic melancholy, a sense that change is imminent and that a way of life is being threatened Such intimations were early evinced in “Ode to Evening” (1747) by William Collins, “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” (1751) by Thomas Gray, and The Borough (1810) by George Crabbe The melancholic strain later developed as a separate theme, as in “Ode on Melancholy” (1820) by John Keats, or—in a different time and place—in the works of American writers: the novels and tales of Nathaniel Hawthorne, which probe the depths of human nature in puritanical New England, or the macabre tales and melancholy poetry of Edgar Allan Poe

In another vein in American literature, the romantic interest in untrammeled nature is found in such writers as Washington Irving, whose Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent (1819-1820), a collection of descriptive stories about the Hudson River valley, reflects the author's knowledge of European folktales as well as contemporary romantic poetry and the Gothic novel The Leather-Stocking Tales by James Fenimore Cooper celebrate the beauty of the American wilderness and the simple frontier life; in romantic fashion they also idealize the Native American as (in Rousseau's phrase) the “noble savage” By the middle of the 19th century the nature tradition was absorbed by American literary transcendentalism, chiefly expressed in the essays of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau

C The Lure of the Exotic

In the spirit of their new freedom, romantic writers in all cultures expanded their imaginary horizons spatially and chronologically They turned back to the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) for themes and settings and chose locales ranging from the awesome Hebrides of the Ossianic tradition, as in the work of Scottish poet James MacPherson (see Ossian and Ossianic Ballads), to the Asian setting of Xanadu evoked by Coleridge in his unfinished lyric “Kubla Khan” (1797) The compilation of old English and Scottish ballads by English poet Thomas Percy was a seminal work; his Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765) exerted a significant influence on the form and content of later romantic poetry The nostalgia for the Gothic past mingled with the tendency to the melancholic and produced a fondness for ruins, graveyards, and the supernatural as themes In English literature, representative works include Keats's “The Eve of St Agnes,” the Gothic novels of Matthew Gregory Lewis, and The Castle of Otranto (1764) by Horace Walpole The Lay of the Last Minstrel (1805), by Scottish writer Sir Walter Scott, and his historical novels, the Waverley series (1814-1825), combine these concerns: love of the picturesque, preoccupation with the heroic past, and delight in mystery and superstition

D The Supernatural

The trend toward the irrational and the supernatural was an important component of English and German romantic literature It was reinforced on the one hand by disillusion with 18th-century rationalism and on the other by the rediscovery of a body of older literature—folktales and ballads—collected by Percy and by German scholars Jacob and Wilhelm Karl Grimm (see Grimm Brothers) and Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen From such material comes, for example, the motif of the doppelgänger (German for “double”) Many romantic writers, especially in Germany, were fascinated with this concept, perhaps because of the general romantic concern with self-identity Poet Heinrich Heine wrote a lyric apocryphally titled “Der Doppelgänger” (1827; translated 1846); The Devil's Elixir (1815-1816; translated 1824), a short novel by E T A Hoffmann, is about a double; and Peter Schlemihl's Remarkable Story (1814; translated 1927), by Adelbert von Chamisso, the tale of a man who sells his shadow to the devil, can be considered a variation on the theme Later, Russian master Fyodor Mikhaylovich Dostoyevsky wrote his famous novel The Double (1846), an analysis of paranoia in a humble clerk

IV DECLINE OF THE TRADITION

By about the middle of the 19th century, romanticism began to give way to new literary movements: the Parnassians and the symbolist movement in poetry, and realism and naturalism in prose

See also American Literature: Poetry; American Literature: Prose; Brazilian Literature; Danish Literature; Dutch Literature; English Literature; French Literature; German Literature; Italian Literature; Latin American Literature; Polish Literature; Portuguese Literature; Russian Literature; Spanish Literature; Swedish Literature

Contributed By:

Robert J Clements

Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2003 © 1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation All rights reserved

高尔基最早的浪漫主义作品有《伊则吉尔的老婆子》、《鹰之歌》、《海燕》等。

一、创作背景：

19世纪末、20世纪初，俄国社会的历史特点是：一方面沙皇专制继续对人民实行残酷的统治和压迫；另一方面俄国人民，尤其是俄国的工人阶级开始觉醒并起而反抗。对俄国当时这种历史现实有较深刻的认识，后来成为世界无产阶级杰出作家的高尔基，正是在这个时期走上文坛的。高尔基这时的创作显然也有两种不同的倾向：一方面大力暴露沙皇统治下"铅一样沉重"的社会现实；另一方面热情歌颂俄国人民的反抗斗争精神，抒发革命的理想。前者是现实主义的；后者则是浪漫主义的。

二、《伊则吉尔的老婆子》简介

《伊则吉尔的老婆子》是高尔基早期革命浪漫主义创作的代表作。在《伊则吉尔老婆子》这篇作品中，有两个显明对立的传说故事。第一个故事讲的是一个极端的利己主义者腊拉。腊拉为了满足自己的私欲而杀死了一个无辜的少女，从而遭到人民的惩罚和唾弃。他在人民的生活中失去了位置，在草原上游来荡去，最后变成了一个像影子一样的人。第二个故事讲的是集体主义英雄丹柯。他年轻、勇敢，对人民怀着强烈的爱。当人民需要自己的时候，他毫不犹豫地掏出自己燃烧着的心，把它高高地举在头上，照亮了拯救人民的道路。

三、《鹰之歌》简介

《鹰之歌》是俄国著名作家马克西姆·高尔基的作品。该首散文诗通过一个鞑靼族老牧人拉吉姆讲述的鹰和蛇的故事，塑造了两个对比强烈的鲜明形象——只会爬行的蛇和永远高飞的鹰。从对比中作者突出了鹰之高大，蛇之渺小；鹰之高尚，蛇之低俗；鹰之英姿，蛇之丑陋，鹰之奋不顾身；蛇之贪生怕死。

四、《海燕》简介

《海燕》又名《海燕之歌》，是高尔基创作的一篇著名散文诗。海燕在暴风雨来临之前，常在海面上飞翔。因此，在俄文里，“海燕”一词含有“暴风雨的预言者”之意。

此文按海面景象的发展变化分成三部分，描绘了海燕面临狂风暴雨和波涛翻腾的大海时的壮丽场景。在这篇文章中，作者通过对海燕在暴风雨来临之际勇敢欢乐的形象的描写，深刻反映了1905年俄国革命前夕急剧发展的革命形势，热情歌颂了俄国无产阶级革命先驱坚强无畏的战斗精神，预言沙皇的黑暗统治必将崩溃，预示无产阶级革命即将到来并必将取得胜利的前景。并且号召广大劳动人民积极行动起来，迎接伟大的革命斗争。

高尔基早期的浪漫主义作品，一方面反映了人民群众对革命、自由的渴望，也表达了作者对光明未来的憧憬，特别是1901年创造的海燕形象，被认为是即将来临的革命风暴的象征，给人们极大鼓舞。

1、英文

Maxim Gorky (1868-1936), the founder of Soviet literature Gorky, formerly Alexei Maximovich Bishkov, was born in a carpenter's home on the Volga River 

His young parents died and lived in his grandfather's home in a small dyeing shop

Later, when his grandfather went bankrupt, 10-year-old Alexeir was a social vagrant, working as a variety of odd jobs 

Although he only attended elementary school for two years, he persisted in self-study and read many books

In addition, he himself had extensive contact with social life, accumulated rich material, and finally made him a world-renowned great writer

His representative works include "Haiyan", "Mother", "Childhood", "In the World", "My University" and so on

2、中文

马克西姆·高尔基（1868-1936），苏联文学的奠基人。高尔基原名阿列克谢·马克西莫维奇·彼什科夫，出生于伏尔加河畔的一个木匠家中，幼年父母双亡，寄居在开小染坊的外祖父家里。

后来外祖父破产，十岁的阿列克谢就在社会上流浪，当过各种杂工。虽然他只上过两年小学，却一直坚持勤奋自学，读了许多书。

加上他本人曾广泛地接触过社会生活，积累了丰富的素材，终于使他成为世界知名的大作家。

代表作品有《海燕》、《母亲》、《童年》、《在人间》、《我的大学》等。

扩展资料：

高尔基早期创作的现实主义作品多取材于他的底层生活的见闻和感受，其中最有代表性的是流浪汉题材的小说《切尔卡什》。

描写了老流浪汉切尔卡什勇敢、独立不羁、不屈从于金钱和保持人的尊严的高贵品质，说明尽管这些人的精神包袱还很沉重，但比起自私、庸俗的小私有者却高尚得多。

在艺术上，《切尔卡什》充分显示了高尔基早期现实主义作品刻画复杂性格的卓越技巧。这些作品除强烈地控诉了资本主义社会的罪恶外，还力图揭示流浪汉内心深处的痛苦和新旧意识的斗争，捕捉劳动群众生活的时代特征，其目的仍然是要唤起人们对生活的积极态度。

高尔基的文学创作起步于浪漫主义。高尔基一生都在探索个人和历史的关系，寻找合理的社会生活，其作品中的主人公也往往充满激烈的内心冲突，并积极投身革命活动，探求改造现实的途径。

高尔基曾不止一次地遭到沙皇政府的逮捕、监督和放逐，但他依旧始终如一地进行自己的革命和文学活动。

——玛克西姆·高尔基

第三部是《玫瑰绽放的年代》

出品时间：2006年

拍摄地点：延安、沈阳、俄罗斯

首播时间：2007年

导 演：王坪

编 剧：陶可，王络

主 演：李琳，陆剑民，申军谊，潘晓莉，倪虹洁，姬晨牧

集 数：32集

每集长度：45分钟

类 型：军旅，传奇

剧情简介——

十七岁的抗联女战士柳芍药（陈雪莹饰）双亲都被日冠杀害，为了护送她到苏联学习，十五名抗联战友牺牲在黑龙江边，杀敌报仇是她唯一的生存目的。在苏联学习期间，柳芍药以倔强的性格和顽强的精神赢得了苏联教官的赏识，并由此改名为柳秋莎。

扩展资料：

角色介绍——

1、柳秋莎 演员 李琳

女军人，是个神枪手。上世纪30年代参加抗联，然后转到延安成家。特别喜欢打仗，和平年代没仗可打就改打架了，同时是个会吃醋、会耍小心眼的女人。

2、邱云飞 演员 陆剑民

文化教员。虽是知识分子，却有勇有谋，立功无数。与李琳的感情纠葛，在经历了种种波折后，二人的感情更进了一步。

3、胡一百 演员 申军谊

柳秋莎的战友。年轻时曾经追求过柳秋莎，但因其嫁与他人，只能将这种爱一直隐藏在心底，并转化成一种友谊，之后一直以老战友的身份陪伴。伴在柳秋莎身边。

参考资料：

中文：

暮光之城这部**讲述了一对苦命鸳鸯的爱情故事，17岁的伊莎贝拉•斯旺是一个聪明有气质且广受欢迎的少女，因为母亲的再婚，她将自己流放到了福克斯（Forks）这个偏僻的小镇上，结识了一个神秘的同班男同学爱德华•卡伦。

后来得知这个男同学来自一个“素食”的吸血鬼家族，可是贝拉身上的特殊香气吸引着他——他一闻到就想吸她的血，可又为了爱而拼命压抑自己的欲望，不顾一切保护她，且**的后部分与家人同想杀她的吸血鬼战斗。

而贝拉明明清楚却还是不可救药的爱上了这个人。互相倾心的两人，在爱情与危险间摆荡，一起度过新鲜而刺激的每一天，就像久违的阳光一样，洒落在浪漫的暮光之城。

英文：

The movie Twilight spoke about a pair of hard couple, 17 year old Isabella Swan is a smart yet popular girl, because of her mother's remarriage, she exiled herself to a remote town named Forks。

In this town, she met a mysterious classmate named Edward Cullen, then she found out Edward came from a "vegetarian" vampire family。 

Bella's sweet scent attracts him -- makes him want to drink her blood, but at the same time suppresses his desire because he is deeply in love with her, wanted to protect her。

The last part of the movie talked about Edward and his family fighting with the vampires that wanted to kill Bella。 

出处：出自美国作家斯蒂芬妮·梅尔的《暮光之城》。

扩展资料：

创作背景：

作者梅尔曾说，她写作这个系列的作品，是源于自己的一个梦，梦境中一对青年男女坐在草地上、沐浴在阳光里幸福地谈天，其中男孩是吸血鬼，女孩是人类。这个特殊的梦成就了《暮色》。《暮色》出版后，梅尔写出了后续的《新月》、《月食》、《破晓》等。

《暮光之城》是融合了多文化的魔幻巨作，除了基督教思想以外，非主流异教文明，各种民间信仰，神话传说，都在作品中大放异彩。然而作品也充斥着多种矛盾力量的对抗，这也增强了故事的吸引力：人与吸血鬼之恋，吸血鬼和狼人之间的比拼，吸血鬼家族间的较量等。

这些对抗最终因为人类女孩贝拉而化解并走向和谐共存。这也体现了作家的一种观点：摒弃人类中心论，呼吁多源文化物种互相尊重，彼此融合在大自然系统中。她通过吸血鬼，狼人和人类女孩贝拉这些不同种族的象征意义，表现出她的生态整体观的思想。