英语中名词的概念以及用法

名词可以分为专有名词和普通名词，专有名词是某个（些）人，地方，机构等专有的名称，如Beijing，China等。普通名词是一类人或东西或是一个抽象概念的名词，如：book，sadness等。普通名词又可分为下面四类：

1）个体名词：表示某类人或东西中的个体，如：gun。

2）集体名词：表示若干个个体组成的集合体，如：family。

3）物质名词：表示无法分为个体的实物，如：air。

4）抽象名词：表示动作、状态、品质、感情等抽象概念，如：work。

个体名词和集体名词可以用数目来计算，称为可数名词，物质名词和抽象名词一般无法用数目计算，称为不可数名词。归纳一下，名词的分类可以下图表示：

名词 专有名词 不可数名词

普通名词 物质名词

抽象名词

集体名词

可数名词

个体名词

11 名词复数的规则变化

情况 构成方法 读音 例词

一般情况 加 -s 清辅音后读/s/ map-maps

浊辅音和元音后读 /z/ bag-bags /car-cars

以s, sh, ch, x等结尾 加 -es 读 /iz/ bus-buses/ watch-watches

以ce, se, ze,等结尾 加 -s 读 /iz/ license-licenses

以辅音字母+y结尾 变y 为i再加es 读 /z/ baby---babies

12 其它名词复数的规则变化

1） 以y结尾的专有名词，或元音字母+y 结尾的名词变复数时，直接加s变复数。例如：

two Marys the Henrys

monkey---monkeys holiday---holidays

2） 以o 结尾的名词，变复数时：

a 加s，如： photo---photos piano---pianos

radio---radios zoo---zoos；

b 加es，如：potato--potatoes tomato--tomatoes

c 上述a和b两种方法均可，如zero---zeros / zeroes。

3） 以f或fe 结尾的名词变复数时：

a 加s，如： belief---beliefs roof---roofs

safe---safes gulf---gulfs；

b 去f,fe 加ves，如：half---halves

knife---knives leaf---leaves wolf---wolves

wife---wives life---lives thief---thieves；

c 上述a和b两种方法均可，如handkerchief: handkerchiefs / handkerchieves。

13 名词复数的不规则变化

1） child---children foot---feet tooth---teeth

mouse---mice man---men woman---women

注意：由一个词加 man 或 woman构成的合成词，其复数形式也是 -men 和-women，如an Englishman，two Englishmen。但German不是合成词，故复数形式为Germans；Bowman是姓，其复数是the Bowmans。

2） 单复同形，如deer，sheep，fish，Chinese，Japanese ，li，jin，yuan，two li，three mu，four jin等。但除人民币的元、角、分外，美元、英镑、法郎等都有复数形式。如：a dollar, two dollars; a meter, two meters。

3）集体名词，以单数形式出现，但实为复数。例如：

people police cattle 等本身就是复数，不能说 a people，a police，a cattle，但可以说a person，a policeman，a head of cattle, the English，the British，the French，the Chinese，the Japanese，the Swiss 等名词，表示国民总称时，作复数用，如The Chinese are industries and brave 中国人民是勤劳勇敢的。

4） 以s结尾，仍为单数的名词，如：

a maths，politics，physics等学科名词，一般是不可数名词，为单数。

b news 为不可数名词。

c the United States，the United Nations 应视为单数。

The United Nations was organized in 1945 联合国是1945年组建起来的。

d 以复数形式出现的书名，剧名，报纸，杂志名，也可视为单数。例如：

"The Arabian Nights" is a very interesting story-book 《一千零一夜》是一本非常有趣的故事书。

5） 表示由两部分构成的东西，如：glasses （眼镜） trousers, clothes等，若表达具体数目，要借助数量词 pair（对，双）; suit（套）; a pair of glasses; two pairs of trousers等。

6） 另外还有一些名词，其复数形式有时可表示特别意思，如：goods货物，waters水域，fishes（各种）鱼。

14 不可数名词量的表示

1）物质名词

a 当物质名词转化为个体名词时为可数。

比较：Cake is a kind of food 蛋糕是一种食物。 （不可数）

These cakes are sweet 这些蛋糕很好吃。 （可数）

b 当物质名词表示该物质的种类时，可数。例如：

This factory produces steel （不可数）

We need various steels （可数）

c 当物质名词表示份数时，可数。例如：

Our country is famous for tea 我国因茶叶而闻名。

Two teas, please 请来两杯茶。

2） 抽象名词表示具体的事例时也可数。例如：

four freedoms 四大自由 the four modernizations四个现代化

物质名词和抽象名词可以借助单位词表一定的数量，如a glass of water 一杯水/ a piece of advice 一则建议。

5 定语名词的复数

名词作定语一般用单数，但也有以下例外。

1) 1) 用复数作定语。例如：

sports meeting 运动会 students reading-room 学生阅览室

talks table 谈判桌 the foreign languages department 外语系

2） man, woman, gentleman等作定语时，其单复数以所修饰的名词的单复数而定。例如：

men workers women teachers gentlemen officials

3） 有些原有s结尾的名词，作定语时，s保留。例如：

goods train （货车） arms produce 武器生产

customs papers 海关文件 clothes brush 衣刷

4） 数词+名词作定语时，这个名词一般保留单数形式。例如：

two-dozen eggs 两打鸡蛋 a ten-mile walk 十英里路

two-hundred trees 两百棵树 a five-year plan 一个五年计划

16 不同国籍人的单复数

国籍 总称（谓语用复数） 单数 复数

中国人 the Chinese a Chinese two Chinese

瑞士人 the Swiss a Swiss two Swiss

澳大利亚人 the Australians an Australian two Australians

俄国人 the Russians a Russian two Russians

意大利人 the Italians an Italian two Italians

希腊人 the Greek a Greek two Greeks

法国人 the French a Frenchman two Frenchmen

日本人 the Japanese a Japanese two Japanese

美国人 the Americans an American two Americans

印度人 the Indians an Indian two Indians

加拿大人 the Canadians a Canadian two Canadians

德国人 the Germans a Germans two Germans

英国人 the English an Englishman two Englishmen

瑞典人 the Swedish a Swede two Swedes

17 名词的格

英语中有些名词可以加"'s"来表示所有关系，带这种词尾的名词形式称为该名词的所有格，如：a teacher's book。名词所有格的规则如下：

1） 单数名词词尾加"'s"，复数名词词尾没有s，也要加"'s"，如the boy's bag 男孩的书包，men's room 男厕所。

2） 若名词已有复数词尾-s ，只加" ' "，如：the workers' struggle 工人的斗争。

3） 凡不能加"'s"的名词，都可以用"名词+of +名词"的结构来表示所有关系，如：the title of the song 歌的名字。

4） 在表示店铺或教堂的名字或某人的家时，名词所有格的后面常常不出现它所修饰的名词，如：the barber's 理发店。

5） 如果两个名词并列，并且分别有's，则表示"分别有"；只有一个's，则表示'共有'。例如：

John's and Mary's rooms（两间） John and Mary's room（一间）

6） 复合名词或短语，'s 加在最后一个词的词尾。例如：a month or two's absence

18 练习

1 1He was eager to make some extra money, since during these years he could hardly live on his_______

a． a． little wage b few wage c wage d wages

2 2Most of the houses in the village were burnt to ______ during the war

a a an ash b the ash c ash d ashes

3 3The students at colleges or universities are making ______ for the coming New Year

a a many preparations b much preparation c preparations d preparation

4 4Painting in _____ is one of their spare-time activities

a a oil b an oil c oils d the oil

5 5In the view of the foreign experts, there wasn't ____ oil here

a a much b lots of b a great deal of d many

6The large houses are being painted, but ______

a of great expense b at a great expense c in a lot of expenses d by high expense

7 7The room was small and contained far too ______

a amuch new furniture b much new furnitures cmany new furniture d many new furnitures

8 8Jim was late for two classes this morning He said that he forgot both of the ______

a rooms number b room number c room's numbers d room numbers

9Computers can do ______ work in a short time, but a man can not do ______ by himself

a great many…many b much…a great deal c a great deal of…much d many…a great many

10 10She didn't know _____ he had been given

a a how many information b how many informations c the number of information d how much information

11 11He invited all of his ______ to join his wedding party

a comrade-in-arms b comrades-in-arm c comrades-in-arms d comrade-in-arm

12 12All the ______ in the hospital got a rise last month

a women doctors b woman doctors c women doctor d woman doctor

13 13After ten years, all these youngsters became_____

a growns-ups b growns-up c grown-up d grown-ups

14 14The police investigated those _____ about the accident

a stander-by b standers-by c stander-bys d standers-bys

15 15The Nazi kept those ______ in their concentration camp

a prisoner-of-wars b prisoners-of-war c prisoners-of-wars d prisoner-of-war

16 16The manager was greatly appreciate that _____ made by Linda lately

a new reel b news reel c new-reels d news reels

17 17Mary's dress is similar in appearance to her ______

a elder sister b elder sister's c elder sisters d elder sisters dress

18 18All the people at the conference are ______

a mathematic teachers b mathematics teacher cmathematics teachers d mathematic's teachers

19Professor Mackay told us that ______ of lead are its softness and its resistance

a a some property b properties c some properties d property

20 20Physics _____ with matter and motion

a a deal b deals c dealing d are

21 21He has written several books, but his last works _____ well known among his friends

a a have b have been c is d are

22 22After he checked up my ______ heart, the doctor advised him to rest for a few days

a a father-in-law's c father's-in-law b b father-in-law d father's-in-law's

23 23He told me _____ would come to his birthday party

a a many Jack friends c many Jack's friend

b b Jack's many friends d many friends of Jack's

24 24I had my hair cut at the _____ around the corner

a abarber b barbers c barber's d barbers'

25 25Yesterday evening we had a lovely evening at ______

a a Peter and Helen's c Peter and Helen

b b Peter and Helens d Peter's and Helen's

26 26______ receives only a small portion of the total amount of the sun's energy

a a The earth's surface c The surface of earth

b b The surface earth d The earth surface

27 27Numerous materials are available to ______

a a today of designers c today's of designers

b b today's designers d today designers

28 28Why did you speak to Peter that way Don't you know he is an old friend of ______

a a my brother b my brothers c my brother's d my brother's friend

29 29______ is a well-informed man He can tell you anything you want to know

a a This John's old friend c That's Jahn's old friend

b b This old friend of John d This old friend of John's

30 30______ is too much for a little boy to carry

a aA bike's weight c The weight of a bike

b bThe weights of a bike d Bile's weight

31 31Generally there are ______ television programs for children on Saturday

a a little b much c a large number of d a large amount of

32 32When they got to the lecture-room, there were ______ left

a a only few seats b a very few seats c only a few seats d so a few seats

33 33______ travels faster when the zip code is indicated on the envelope

a a A little mail b A piece of mail c A mail d A small mail

34 34The Department purchased ______ to improve the working conditions there

a a a new equipment c new equipments

b b a new piece of equipment d new pieces of equipments

35 35The boy tried hard but there has been ______ in his work

a a little improvement c many improvements

b b a little improvement d few improvements

36 36Today's modern TV cameras require ______ light as compared with the earlier models

a a only a few b only few c only a little d only little

37 37No country can afford to neglect ______

a a an education b educations c education d the education

38 38Please write the answers to the questions at the end of ______

a a eighth chapter b chapter eight c eight chapter d chapter the eight

39 39______ is only surpassed by that of monkeys' and apes'

a a The intelligent dog c The intelligence of dogs

b b The dogs whose intelligence d The dogs being intelligent

40 40All ______ must take the graduate Management Admission Test

a a business student b business's students c business students d business's student

41 41______ anywhere in the United States costs less than a dollar when you dial it yourself

a a Three minutes call c A three-minutes call

b b Three-minute call d A three-minute call

42 42The ______ about nuclear energy revolves around the waste problem

a a public's chief concern c chief public concern

b b public chief concern d chief concern of public's

43 43______ the first and largest ethnic group to work on the construction of the transcontinental railroad

a Chinese were b The Chinese was c Chinese was d The Chinese were

44 44______ can get a better view of the game than the participants

a a Looker-on b Lookers-on c Looker-ons c Lookers-ons

45 45A group of spectators was dispersed by the police who ______ at the scene of the accidents within minutes

a a were b have been c was d has been

46 46Our livestock ______ not as numerous as they used to be

a a is b are c be d been

47 47One of the most surprising things is that ______ may come from petroleum

a a much of tomorrow food c many of tomorrow's food

b b much of the food of tomorrow d much of tomorrow's food

48 48Scott is an orphan but he received ______

a a very good education c a very good education

b b very good educations d many good educations

49 49After several day's hardworking, we have made ______ on the design

a a much improvement c many improvement

b b several improvements d some improvement

50 50The boy was very happy that his mother bought him a new pair of shoes at a ______ yesterday

a a shoes shop b shoe shop c shoes's shop d shoe's

51 51Eggs, though nourishing, have ______ of fat content

a a large number b a large number c a high amount d the high amount

52 52He has done some ______ on that subject from various angles over the past ten years

a a research b a research c researches d the researches

53 53Recently, he has lost all his ______

a a wage and saving at card c wages and saving at card

b b wages and savings at card d wages and savings at cards

54 54The country's wealth comes chiefly from its many ______

a a herd of cattle b heard of cattles c herds of cattle d herds of cattles

55 55In Britain the ______ are all painted red

a a letter boxes b letters box c letters boxes d letters's box

56 56Ten years had passed I found she had ______

a a a little white hair c a few white hair

b b some white hair d much white hair

57 57All his ______ far from satisfaction

a a conduct is b conduct are c conducts is d conducts will be

58 58Although the town had been attacked by the storm several times, ______ was done

a a a few damages b few damages c little damage d a little damage

59 59He was ______ what to do

a a at his wit end b at his wits end c at his wit's end d at his wits's end

60 60Would you like to have a cup of tea and ______ with me

a two toasts b two pieces of toast c two piece of toasts d tow pieces of toasts

61 61Accurate ______ covering the fact are not obtainable

a a datum b datums c data d datas

62 62On Monday morning some teachers exchanged a few ______

a a how-are-yous c how-are-you's

b b of how-are-you's d of how are you

63 63Albert said he met the girl ______

a a at his uncle's Smith room c at his uncle Smith's room

b b at Smith's his uncle's room d at the room of his uncle's Smith's

64 64It is four months since I last saw Keats ______

a a at Mrt Smith's ,the book seller c at my aunt's, a book seller

b b at my aunt's, Mrs Palmer's d at Mrs Palmer's, the book seller's

65 65This room is ______

a a the editor's-in-chief's office c the editor-in-chief's office

b b the editor-in-chief office d the editor's-in-chief office

66 66My old classmate, Comrade Sun ,works at ______

a a a teacher college c a teacher's college

b b a teachers's college d a college of a teacher's

67 67The policemen put the criminal ______

a a in a iron b into a iron c in irons d into a pair of iron

68 68Our teacher gave me ______

a a an advice b the advice c many advice d much advice

69 69My mother cut the cloth with ______ scissors

a a a b two c a couple of d a pair of

70My house is within ______ from the railway station

a a stone's throw b a throw of a stone c stone's throw d the stone's throw

名词练习答案

1 D 15 B 29 D 43 D 57 A

2 D 16 B 30 B 44 B 58 C

3 C 17 B 31 C 45 A 59 D

4 C 18 C 32 C 46 B 60 B

5 A 19 C 33 B 47 D 61 C

6 C 20 B 34 C 48 B 62 B

7 A 21 C 35 A 49 C 63 B

8 D 22 A 36 C 50 B 64 D

9 C 23 D 37 C 51 C 65 B

10 D 24 C 38 B 52 A 66 C

11 C 25 A 39 B 53 D 67 C

12 A 26 A 40 C 54 C 68 D

13 D 27 C 41 D 55 A 69 D

14 B 28 C 42 A 56 D 70 A

名词(II)

一、 名词的种类

名词是所有事物的名称，包括人、物及抽象概念。名词分为普通名词和专有名词两大类。

1 普通名词

普通名词是某类人、事件、物体和抽象概念的名称。根据其所指代物体的特征，普通名词又可分为以下四类：

A． 个体名词 表示人或物体中可以数清的单个体。如：student（学生）、pen（钢笔）、bird（鸟）等。

B． 集体名词 （即集合名词）表示由个体组成的集合体。如people（人民）、police（警察）、family（家庭）等。

C． 物质名词 表示构成物体物质的不可数名词，或表示无法分为个体的物质的名词。如water（水）、air（空气）、wood（木头）等。

D． 抽象名词 表示动作、状态、品质、情感等非具体化的抽象概念。如work（工作）、peace（和平）、love（爱）等。

2 专有名词

专有名词是某些人、事物、机构、组织等特有的名称。主要包括：人名、地名、国名、党派名称等。如：Churchill（丘吉尔）、Tokyo（东京）、China（中国）、the Communist Party of China（中国***）等。

二、名词的性

名词按其所表达的物体的自然性别可以分为四类。

1 阴性名词

表示女性或雌性动物的名词。如woman（女人）、hostess（女主人）、cow（母牛）等。

2 阳性名词

表示男性或雄性动物的名词。如man（男人）、host（男主人）、bull（公牛）等。

3 中性名词

表示物体和抽象概念的名词。如radio（收音机）、love（爱）、tree（树）、friend（朋友）等。

4 通性名词

多数英语名词不分性，这类名词特指人类、适用于男性和女性组成的小群体或男性、女性个体。如parents（父母）、couple（夫妇）、children（孩子们）、child（孩子）、person（一个人）等。

三、名词的数

名词分可数名词和不可数名词

1 可数名词

个体名词都是可数名词。每个可数名词都有其单数和复数形式。

A 单数 表示"一个"的概念。用名词的单数时，名词前需加 a 或 an。如 a book（一本书）、a river（一条河）、an apple（一个苹果）、an orange（一个橘子）等。

B 复数 表示两个或两个以上的物体。如two pens（两枝钢笔）、three days（三天）、three cities（三个城市）等。

复数形式的构成有两种：规则名词复数形式的构成和不规则名词复数形式的构成。具体见下表。

规则名词复数形式的构成

词形特点 变为复数形式的构成方法 例 词

大多数名词 在词尾加-s。（在清辅音后读[s]，在浊辅音及元音后读[z]。） cat--catsbag--bagsday--days

以 s、x、ch、sh 结尾的名词 在词尾加 -es, 读作[iz]。 class--classesmatch--matches

以辅音字母 + y 结尾的名词 把 y 变成 i , 加 -es, 读作[iz] city--cities

但专有名词例外，直接在 y后加-s, 读作[z] Germany--Germanys

以辅音字母 + o 结尾的名词 一般直接加 -es , 读作[z]; 某些外来词例外，加 -s （如 zero, kilo, tobacco 等） tomato--tomatoesphoto--photospiano--pianos

以元音字母 + o 结尾的名词 直接加 -s, 但读作[z] zoo--zoosradio--radios

以 f 或 fe 结尾的名词 有的直接加 -s, 读作[z] roof--roofs

大多数要将 f 或 fe 变为 v, 再加-es,读作[z] leaf--leaveswife--wives

有些词两种形式者可以 handkerchief--handkerchiefs--handkerchieves

不规则名词复数形式的构成

复数形式的构成特点 例 词

通过改变词内元音字母 man--men foot--feettooth--teeth mouse--mice（老鼠）

通过在词尾加-en ox--oxen（牛） child--children

单复数形式相同 a sheep--two sheepa deer--two deer（鹿）a Chinese--two Chinese（中国人）

外来词保持其原有的复数形式 crisis--crises（危机） basis--bases（基础）phenomenon--phenomena（现象）

复合名词复数形式的构成

词的构成特点 变复数的方法 例 词

由若干

PDonze HMéon

（Université Claude-Bernard Lyon 1,Centre de Paléontologie stratigraphique et Paléoécologie,UMR 5565 CNRS,29 bd du 11 novembre 1918,F 69622,Villeurbanne France）

ERobin RRocchia

（Centre des faibles radioactivités,Laboratoire mixte CEA-CNRS,avenue de la TerrasseF 91198 GIF-sur-Yvette Cedex,France）

OBen Abdelkader HBen Salem A-LMaamouri

（Office national des Mines,24 rue 8601,2035 La Charguia,Tunisie）

摘要　突尼斯西北部埃尔克夫剖面已被选作白垩系－第三系界线层型。它为很准确地研究生物危机提供了极优越的条件。从地球化学与古生物学研究可以确定出3次事件。其中的两次延续了很长的时间，一次海退和一次气候变冷。第3次是以宇宙物质（铱、富镍尖晶石等）在薄至毫米级的褐红色层（针铁矿）中的存在为特征的宇宙灾变。这一薄层现被认为是白垩系－第三系界线。海退引起浮游生物组合的逐渐变化，并有利于适应浅水环境种属的发展。气候变化改变了陆源物质（孢粉）的成分；热带属种在数量上逐渐减少，以至完全绝灭，并为与欧洲更亲近的属种所取代。宇宙事件产生最有戏剧性的影响：直接在那针铁矿层之上，90%～95%带有碳酸盐质外壳的海生生物消失了。剩下的5%～10%则在上面10cm厚的泥灰质沉积物中逐渐地消失。恢复到危机前的状况是位于界线之上的大约2m处。相反，具几丁质外壳的沟鞭藻、藻类植物似乎很少受到白垩纪－第三纪事件的影响。陆生孢粉植物群也在白垩系－第三系界线处受到严重干扰：界线上的第1个厘米内，它们的绝灭率大约比在上马斯特里赫特阶中所观察到的要高大约100倍。但是，很多种属还是侥幸存活下来了。被广泛接受的假说是宇宙碰撞产生的大量粉尘使得太阳光辐射被吸收，以及光合作用减弱。但是，这个很有吸引力的假说并不符合埃尔克夫地区的观察：太阳光的吸收也应当对沟鞭藻产生戏剧性的重大影响。我们没有观察到这种影响。据资料推断，宇宙事件除了减弱光合作用外，还在大洋里产生一种干扰钙质壳形成的化学条件。

关键词　白垩系－第三系界线　埃尔克夫层型剖面　突尼斯　宇宙事件海退　气候变化

1　引言

突尼斯西北部的埃尔克夫地区是研究白垩系－第三系界线地层的著名地点。早在本世纪初，杰出的地质学家Pervinguière[23]就提出在该地区存在白垩系与第三系之间的连续过渡。这一看法为后来的研究所证实。因此，这一地点成为研究马斯特里赫特期及古新世生物地层学的经典场所（第6、第7届非洲微体古生物讨论会，突尼斯，1974,Ile-Ife1976，第26届国际地质学大会，巴黎，1980）[8,2]。

这个地点的重要性在于它特殊的古地理位置。它位于特提斯海之南缘，向南伸入大撒哈拉地台。在晚白垩世，中突尼斯受到这个地台正向漂移的影响，这个漂移，随着海退，就导致在特提斯海南部形成大的被侵蚀的大陆腹地（“Ile de Kassérine”）。在那时，埃尔克夫地区占据着外大陆高原和内盆地缘脊之间的位置。在这个明显开阔但深度中等（约200～300m）的海中，浮游和底栖生物都找到了发展的好条件。然而，在腹地很平坦的地区里，没有粗粒的碎屑物去干扰沉积作用。

2　埃尔克夫剖面

在埃尔克夫西南边（1:50000埃尔克夫地质图[6]），在连接塔热卢伊纳（Tajerouine）公路上的西阿布达拉斯里（Si Abd Allah Srhir）镇与哈芒梅莱格（Hamman Mellègue）村的尘土路旁，可以见到若干马斯特里赫特期至古新世地层的延续露头（图1）。

图1　突尼斯西北部埃尔克夫剖面位置图

在含钙质的下马斯特里赫特阶之上，是500米厚的泥灰质岩系，即El Haria组，它显示出上马斯特里赫特阶及古新统是连续的沉积。白垩系－第三系界线出露在Fedj Hajar小村庄附近（Lambert坐标：x=3876;y=31765）。

在马斯特里赫特阶最上部，即Mayaroensis带之顶部（图2，单元A）由含40%～50%CaCO3的灰色致密泥灰岩组成。在这个层序的顶部，有一个锈褐色的针铁矿薄层（单元B:1—2毫米）夹在两个含石膏薄层之间。这个针铁矿层虽然很薄，但却是连续的，且可以追索几百米远。这一层是采样的参考层。它被一个暗色粘土质泥灰岩（单元C）和一个不含CaCO3的黑色塑性粘土层（单元D，厚约3厘米）所覆盖。在这层之上，碳酸盐含量（单元E）缓慢增加，到上马斯特里赫特阶，这参考层之上约两米处，其含量达到50%。

图2　埃尔克夫剖面上的白垩系－第三系界线

从左至右：a—界线附近的地层柱状图，从针铁矿层（o）以下－10cm到其以上＋20cm;b—CaCO3含量曲线图（从针铁矿层以下－50cm到其上＋200cm;c—铱和富镍尖晶石富集度（从－50cm到＋200cm），下虚线相应于依含量（ng/g），上虚线相应于每毫克中尖晶石数

3　马斯特里赫特阶内部的事件

上马斯特里赫特阶含有丰富的浮游和底栖微体生物化石，包括有孔虫[2,29,3,13,15,14]、介形虫[4]、颗石藻[21,22,24]和沟鞭藻[5]。在浸入的腹地里也有孢粉。低的生物扰动使得很精确的地层学研究成为可能。宁静的沉积条件使得化石保存状况很好。

31　海退

一直到马斯特里赫特阶顶部，有孔虫组合都很丰富，但它们的分布在Mayaroensis带的上部，也就是马斯特里赫特阶的最后10cm，显示出一个演化。从其发育要求最低限度水深不小于100m的Globotruncanidae科的种群数量明显减少，到较适应较浅水的Heteroheli-cidae科逐渐丰富，这是毫无疑问的海退迹象。

沟鞭藻的研究支持这个论点：Brinkhuis和Zachariasse[5]报道了上马斯特里赫特阶的海退趋势之证据。

32　气候变冷

（1）陆生植物

埃尔克夫剖面，从Falsostuarti带（白垩系－第三系界线之下165m）[18]到Pseudobul-loides带（界线以上45m）都从孢粉学观点进行过研究。大量已描述的属种使得对陆生植物演化能作精确的研究。

陆生孢粉群显示出整个马斯特里赫特期晚期的逐渐变化。绝灭率相当低（马斯特里赫特阶最上部45m中有45个种绝灭），主要结果是非洲－南美洲古热带省的属种向前绝灭[17～19]。丹尼阶底部地层发育的地区大部分包含与欧洲亲近的属种。这些渐进式变化是气候变冷的清楚象征，这种气候变冷可能与海退和导致那时德干高原产生玄武质暗色岩的逐渐增强的火山活动有关[7]。

（2）海生生物界

据有孔虫和同位素研究[15]也可推断出晚白垩世期间渐进式的气候变冷。

气候变冷也由介形虫中喜暖种类（例如，Cytherelloidea[8]）逐渐消失的记录显示出来。

4　白垩纪－第三纪事件

41　宇宙标志物

埃尔克夫的白垩系－第三系界线，如同大多数在其白垩系－第三系剖面上一样，是由铱的超度丰富和富镍尖晶石晶体的存在来作为标志的，这种富镍尖晶石是陨石物质被氧化而产生的矿物[27]。铱－富镍尖晶石的组合显示出当时曾发生过灾变性的宇宙事件[26～28]。由于沉积以后的扩散作用，或者由于铱这种金属在大洋里的停留时间，铱分布范围达好几米。相反，富镍尖晶石只发现于马斯特里赫特阶最上部1mm厚的浅褐色针铁矿薄层里。这样狭窄的分布范围表明宇宙物质的降落仅是简单的爆炸事件的结果[26]。

42　海生生物

丰富的、高分异度的钙质海洋微体生物种群的演化，刚好在针铁矿层处突然中止。有孔虫表明直接就在这一层之上有一个大的衰减，将近90%的种群消失了。在以上的5cm沉积物中，浮游属种越来越不丰富，以至于消失，然而底栖种类则通过选择更具忍耐力的属种（Lenticulina,Cibicides,Ammodiscus）而存活下来。有孔虫的含量在黑色粘土层（单元D）中达到最小值，那一层里只包含有很稀少的、小的、较能忍受无氧条件的种（Bulimina，呈粘结型的）。我们不仅看到个体丰度的急剧减小，而且也见到标本特征上的有意义的变化。在马斯特里赫特阶最上部，大小正常的壳钙化得很好；在针铁矿层之上，标本小，而且钙化得不好，这就提供了很不适宜的环境条件的证据。

钙质超微化石组合[21,22,24]表明丰度和分异度都很大，直到马斯特里赫特阶之顶部亦无大的变化。但是，在针铁矿层之上，它们的频度就急剧减少，并且在黑色粘土层里完全消失[（Perch-Nielsen）文章[21]中的LMC6至LMC8号样品就等于我们现在所称的针铁矿层和黑色粘土层]。此外，Perch-Nielsen指出，一种钙质沟鞭藻囊——Thoracosphaera在同一层中缺失。

介形虫这种对环境很敏感的底栖后生动物，也受到这次危机很大的影响。一些种（Krithe sp,Martinieythere cfvesiculosa Apostolescu）在针铁矿层之上第1个厘米里还存在，在以后几个厘米中就消失了[9,11]。

在克夫剖面中的沟鞭藻已为Brinkhuis和Zachariasse[5]所研究过。我们为了评价它们在白垩系－第三系界线直接邻近处的演化而再次研究这些生物（图3）。它们并没显示出在通过此界线处有绝灭率加快的情况。我们只观察到，刚好从针铁矿层之下开始，它们相对丰度（相对于所有孢粉个体的丰度）减小了。我们不知道这个事实是白垩系－第三系界线事件的结果，还是由在马斯特里赫特末期有节奏的海退所引起的。

43　陆生植物

大陆对孢粉体的影响在白垩系－第三系界线层处增加（根据我们的资料来说是系数3，根据Brinkhuis和Zachariasse[5]的研究结果甚至系数为4～5）。

在针铁矿层及直接上覆的层中孢粉组合很丰富且有最大的分异度（图4）。各属种的绝灭率在针铁矿层大大增高。11个属种消失刚好与富镍尖晶石沉降相吻合。附加的12个属种消失是在以后的20cm，直至黑色塑性粘土之顶部。这是一个高于马斯特里赫特阶上部100倍的绝灭率。但是，我们不能说存在着植物的崩溃，（在主要属种中）大约50个属种，也就是孢粉体的三分之二，经受了界线事件而存活下来。很显然，在克夫地区，陆生植物受到的影响远较北美为小。在北美，陆生植物生态系统的毁坏是看得到的[25]。由蕨类植物也得出同样结论：我们在埃尔克夫观察到了一个小型蕨类植物的最繁盛值（图3），但是不能与在北美大陆剖面上观察的蕨类植物巨大高峰值相比拟。

44　讨论

很明显，在针铁层存在过白垩系－第三系界线处海生生物（有孔虫、介形虫、颗石鞭毛藻等）生产力的快速下降，这与地外星体碰撞所引起的宇宙物质突然沉降相吻合[1,26～29]。假定粘土组分堆积率在穿过界线处是一个常数（大约5cm/ka），我们可以估算出生物危机的延续在100年之内（相对应于针铁矿层的厚度）。古生物学分析和地球化学分析表明，海洋环境突然地高度缩小[6,15]。这一缺氧事件几乎肯定是由于浮游植物（颗石鞭毛藻）生产率低下造成的，而浮游植物必须依靠太阳辐射。人们已提出，由宇宙碰撞结果造成的尘埃罩使得太阳辐射被强烈地吸收，因而，引起光合作用严重缩减。这一情景是有高度吸引力的。但是，它不能说明埃尔克夫的观察结果。

主要的反对理由是，它不能说明钙质超微化石和钙质沟鞭藻（Thoracosphaea）、与几丁质沟鞭藻之间的行为差异。它们为了自己的发育都需要阳光。然而，令人惊奇的是，前者完全消失，而后者大多数却存活了。显然，日光数量并非促成绝灭模式之唯一参数。

第二个反对意见是：如果在埃尔克夫记录到的陆生植物受到了K-T事件的严重干扰（三分之一的种绝灭），它没有被完全破坏并且被蕨类植物所取代（就像北美大陆地点所观察到的那样[20,25,31]）。我们在埃尔克夫所见到的是陆生植被与海生沟鞭藻受到中等程度的干扰，这与钙质浮游生物种之极严重破坏形成明显对照。这样一种鲜明的选择性可以用一种附加因素的影响来解释。

我们推出的假说认为，这钙质海生生物种严重危机的增大是由于微体生物产生碳酸盐困难。众所周知，pH值和痕量元素的丰度在微体生物的发育中，特别是建造它们的碳酸盐贝壳和外壳中，起着根本的作用。两个过程可以归结为：①由于大气圈中氮氧化物的大量形成和由靶物质离解产生的硫氧化物而产生的碳酸[6]；②撞击天体及海水离子化作用放出的重金属对大洋表层水的污染。大洋表面条件所发生的变化可以阻止颗石鞭毛藻生产碳酸盐。它们的消失就这样夺去了动物界所赖以生存的海洋氧环境。这可以说明微体动物群和超微体浮游生物的消失，因而也能说明正如在低纬度和中纬度地区到处可见到的那样，从碳酸盐到粘土沉积的突然过渡。

图3　埃尔克夫剖面孢粉图谱

直方图的每一条块之厚度相应于每一个分析样品的厚度。左边第一个柱子表示海相孢粉相对于陆相孢粉的分布数量；它显示出在马斯特里赫特阶上部的海退趋势，这一趋势在白垩系－第三系界线处达于顶点，在它上面又是海进，始终是在开放的海洋环境中。其他几个柱子表示陆生孢粉体主要类别的分布；对蕨类植物孢子而言，在白垩系－第三系界线处有一最大值（＝IR），蕨类植物含量在15%至20%之间，故与美国的蕨类高峰值——100%有很大的差别。右边最后一个柱子给出了KD剖面上每一个样品中鉴定出的属种数量。可以看出，这个数字在界线处及以后的两个厘米内是增加的。这个增加，更多地是相应于陆源供给物的增加（因为海平面降低），而较少与其他因素有关；它表明陆生植物群也没有受到强烈破坏，见图4

图4　陆生孢粉体演化图谱

在这图中，122b至126号样品是我们以前第一篇文章[17]所采的样，KD4至19样品为新采的（左边柱子）；为了便于作图，不可能列出整个Mayaroensis带上的演化，45个种在马斯特里赫特阶上部最后45m内消失。由于同样原因，黑色塑性粘土之上残留的所有属种也未表示，这大约有50个。下面的数字表示每个种出现的层位（例如63，最低的样品，属于Falsostuarti带，在界线之下100多米）。大多数通过了黑色塑性层的属种一直延续到了Pseudobulloides带，在界线以上约30m

5　结论

在埃尔克夫剖面上记录了3件不同的、重要的事件。一次海退、一次全球变冷和一次宇宙灾变。海退是由其发育只需要最小水深的那些生物丰度减低来体现的，那些生物只要求最小水深是有利于更适应表层水环境的种群。气候变冷由陆生孢粉群的逐渐变化可以清楚地看到。海退和气候变冷是历时很长而且演进缓慢的事件，表明它们的影响在马斯特里赫特期（Mayaroensis带）的末期很明显。它们可能与同样的原因相关，可能是岩石圈的不稳定性，引起构造运动、火山活动，并因此而引起大气圈变冷。第3个事件是宇宙灾变。它被记录在针铁矿薄层中，此层含有铱和富镍尖晶石晶体，并标示出钙质微体化石的急剧减少。暂时侥幸存活下来的动物群，遇到强烈缺氧的条件，在针铁矿层之上约10cm处的黑色塑性粘土层中完全消失。富镍尖晶石晶体在埃尔克夫的地层分布很狭窄（几个毫米），并且与钙质微体化石的全面缩减准确地吻合，这表明了生物危机与宇宙灾变之间的因果联系。这次灾变的后果在海洋生物界里可明显地见到，而在陆生生物界中，则体现的程度稍差一些。仅仅用太阳辐射的吸收来解释绝灭的选择性是很困难的。我们提出，在海洋生物界中这一危机的重要性之增大是由于海水中化学条件阻碍了带钙质壳生物种的发育。

（潘云唐　译，项礼文　校）

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[6]PFBurollet and PSainfeldNotice explicative de la feuille au 1/50000 n°44 Le Kef1956,32

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[8]PDonzeUne série de reference pour le Maastrichtien et le Paleocene en facies mesogeen:la coupe dite de la“piste du Hamman Mellègue”au SW du Kef（Tunisie septentrionale,26e CGI（Paris 1980）,1980,1,225

[9]PDonzeEvolution of the Ostracods microfauna at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in El Kef section（NW Tunisia）In:Workshop on Cretaceous-Tertiary transitions at El Kef——Abstracts,1992,2～3

[10]PDonze,SJardiné，OLegoux,EMasure and HMeonLes évènements a la limite Cretace-Tertiaire:au Kef（Tunisie septentrionale）,l'analyse palynoplanctologique montre qu'un changement climatique est décelable a la base du DanienActes ler CongNatSciences TerreTunis,1981,161～169

[11]PDonze,JPColin,RDamotte,HJOertli,JPPeypouquet and RSaldLes Ostracodes du Campanien terminalàl’Eocène inférieur de la coupe du Kef,Tunisie nord-occidentaleBullCentres RechExplor-ProdElf-Aquitaine,1982,6,2,273～335

[12]PDonze,HMeon,RRocchia,ERobin and LFrogetBiological changes at the KT stratotype of El Kef（Tunisia）In:New developments regarding the KT event and other catastrophes in Earth history,LPI Contribution n°825GeolSocAmer,Sppap,1994,247,72～76

[13]GKellerExtinction,survivorship and evolution of planktic foraminifera accross the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary at El Kef,TunisiaMarine Micropaleontology,1988,13,239～263

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[15]GKeller and MLindingerStable isotope,TOC and CaCO3 record across the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary at El Kef,TunisiaPalaeogeog,Palaeoclimat,Palaeoecol,1989,73,243～265

[16]DMMcLeanDeccan traps mantle degassing in the terminal Cretaceous marine extinctionsCretaceous Re-search,1985,6,235～259

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[20]DJNicholsGeologic and biostratigraphic framework of the non-marine Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary interval in Western North AmericaRevPalaeobotPalynol,1990,65,75～84．

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The Americas original residents have lived for more than 15,,000 years on this land Europe starts from 15 century's ends to colonize Americas In 1607, the first English person colonized the area successfully in the Virginia state establishment Receives in 20 years, some Holland colonizes the area also one after another to establish, including is located new Amsterdam (now New York) to colonize the area with the New Jersey state In 17th century and 18th century, England gradually seizes the Dutch and other European colonizing area, and widely opens up wasteland in the American east bank colonizes, establishes many colonizes the area Besides today Canada, England has altogether established 13 colonies in North America

In 1760 ages and 1770 ages, between 13 Americas colony and England's tension finally initiated the revolutionary war, the colony representatives has signed "the US Declaration of Independence" in July 4, 1776 At the war of independence (in 1775 -1783 year) center, the George Washington leader 13 colonies compositions mainland regiment resisted the English armed force The colony established the mainland regiment in 76 years congress, but has not been authorized them to levy the taxes and levies and the formulation federation law In 1777, the independent colony official acceptance confederation rule, has founded a federation sovereign state, as well as exercises the authority federal state, and has authorized the American constitution After experiences the difficult war of independence, the mainland regiment finally defeated the English armed force, England signs the Paris treaty in 1783, officially acknowledged American the independence

From 1803 to 1848, US'S area which newly had been established nearly expands three times, the colonizing mind new republic "has been doomed expands to the entire mainland" the ideal, faces the broad 无际 wilderness development, even "buys in the Louis Xi'an natrium" before then already thorough interior This kind of expansion when 1812 war has encountered the short obstruction, but very quickly continues along with the war victory to carry on In 1848 US has won the beautiful ink war, strengthened colonizing to expand the national territory the ideal

Along with the national unceasing expansion and the development, a new question also gradually reappears, north the palm controls the federal state in gathers in the slave question and the state power with the south State authority has the difference: North the state opposes the slave system the expansion; But south the state north opposed the state interferes its life style, because their cotton economical industry is overall relies on the slave system In Abraham Lincoln after 1860 president-elect, the conflict thorough eruption, the South Carolina state became the first announcement to be separated from the federation the state, six south states also one after another separated, established the America association allied country in 1861 to resist the federal state The American civil war obtained by the federation in 1865 successfully comes to an end, simultaneously ended the slave system, as well as the state whether was authorized to is separated from the federation the dispute This civil war becomes the American history the main watershed, federal state's authority henceforth greatly is the increase

The civil war period technical development, comes in addition from Europe's massive immigrations tide, has provided the massive labor forces for US'S emerging industry, before nobody development region founded many communities and the city, has accelerated US'S industrial development as well as steps to the international might advancement In addition, US has carried on many imperialisms risk in the overseas, including the war victory has annexed Puerto Rico and the Philippines after America, causes US to become one of world main big powers

The First World War erupted in 1914, US at first maintain neutrality; Because Germany starts the unlimited submarine war attacks and sinks the American ships which navigates in Atlantic, creates many American common people the innocent casualty, has enraged the American populace Joins the allies in war final stage US to resist the ally As a result of the historical reason, the American populace sympathize with regarding England and France, although has the part of German lineage and the Irish lineage opposition involvement In order to protect the American investors and the federal state in Europe's massive investments also is one of principal factors which US enters a war Entered a war in US after 1917, the war reversed immediately, causes the allies to win in 1918 Postwar, worried excessively is involved in the European business, the American Senate authorizes the allies to punish the ally by no means the Versailles treaty; On the contrary, US has adopted the isolated principle policy

The war causes the European country vitality big wound, actually takes to US to bring the massive wealths and the prestige In the nearly entire 1920 ages, the farm price unceasingly reduced, the industrial profit large growth, the American economy developed exceptionally prospers This wave economy grows also prosperously adds fuel to the flames by the credit rise and the stock market, finally greatly is collapsed the stock market in 1929 the plate, following is the economy is greatly panic In order to recover the economy, Franklin 德拉诺 the Roosevelt government implements the new deal, largely increases the government to the economy the intervention However the new deal actually does not have completely to become effective, the American economy only then thoroughly recovers after Second World War Sneak attacks Pearl harbor after Japan, US joins the counter- Fascist union to resist the axis powers Receives the war becomes in the American history a price most soaring war rear area, however the front and was big the massive work opportunity which created, as well as the war industry industry impetus production recovers, causes the American economy completely to go out the greatly panic haze The American women also therefore large-scale tread into the work duty field

After the war victory, American and Soviet Union's conflict gradually reappears, the American representative is the capitalism and the free democratic system, but Soviet Union represented the communism and the planned economy, Soviet Union's rising has created the cold war with the ideology conflict which 1940 ages last stages started Both countries carry on a succession of client war in many areas and the country, including the Korean War, the Vietnamese war, has nearly triggered the nuclear war the Cuban missile crisis, as well as the Afghan war

Because the vigilance to with in Soviet Union's outer space competition backwardness, the American government starts vigorously to raise mathematics and the science outstanding person talented person, in the American country aerospace bureau diligently under, the first success sent the person in 1969 to land on the Moon

In the American home, the urbanized development gradually completes, the American society experienced section of times to continue the economical expansion At the same time, the American society's racial discrimination phenomenon gradually receives takes, in particular in south Started from 1950 ages, these discrimination received the civil rights movement challenge which Martin person and so on Luther gold led, finally finally abolished south various states racial segregation law

After experienced 1970 ages petroleum crisis initiation the economic recession, the American economy started healthy recovering in 1980 ages Soviet Union thoroughly collapsed in 1991, causes US to become in the world the only superpower US still continues to dispatch troops to participate in the overseas the war, for example 1991 Persian Gulf war In 1990 ages, did obeisance bestowing of the massive work opportunity and the technical transformation which the digitized revolution as well as Internet made, the American economy has launched the unprecedented prosperity growth, emerging silicon valley became the world information of industry the main item strategic place Two world wars, not only has caused heavy losses to emerging great nation Germany and Japan, simultaneously also caused traditional great nation England and France has lost to the world pattern right to control Then world, except US and Soviet Union, other industrialized country all scenery no longer US accounted for the world total quantity in the postwar gross value of industrial output one above the half, and has established in the world scope take US dollar as the central international finance system, simultaneously, it also has accredited the army to the world 50 countries and the area

Second World War becomes the American history new turning point The unique comprehensive strength, after enable US to get rid of the First World War to attempt the awkwardness which the arrangement world order actually ended without any result, started according to be advantageous to own way leadership international order, and finally in 20th century later periods, became a superpower

Reply:Continuously ♂ to old - application evil spirit master two levels 4-21 15:53

The culture and history of American

Pop culture

When you think of American culture, what first comes to your mind McDonald's Coca Cola Levi's Disneyland Michael Jordan Julia Roberts Many people imagine American culture is a collection of popular symbols like these Actually, these symbols are only one small part of American culture- "pop culture"

What is pop culture Well, pop is short for popular The origins of pop culture can often be traced to popular movies, television shows, music stars and sports figures Pop culture is also promoted by business and advertising The most common examples of American pop culture appear among high school and college students Trends set by famous personalities quickly become part of young people's lifestyles

American pop culture has spread around the world One major reason for its popularity is that English is a universal language English is the language of diplomacy, international business and transportation Since language and culture go together, learning English means becoming aware of English-speaking cultures Also, America is a world leader in movies, music and magazines The kind of American culture communicated in those media is pop culture Finally, pop culture is easy to package and to export For that reason, it is easy to "sell" to the world

Many people assume that American pop culture is what America is all about Does pop culture reflect the true culture of America Yes and no Pop culture does represent a portion of American society-especially urban young people that are tuned in to the media But American pop culture is faddish and ever-changing It is an artificial and superficial picture of America If you want to learn about real American culture, you'll have to go a little farther than McDonald's

（Personal opinion, only for reference）

The Gulf War after World War II most belligerent, one-time to send troops to the largest investment in most weapons the most advanced and largest air strikes, fighting and an unprecedented intensity and the development of extraordinarily rapid loss of another great disparity in casualties on both sides of a modern high-tech Local war While fighting lasted only 43 days, but it provides a number of local wars of modern fresh experiences and lessons Especially since a large number of high-tech weapons systems for operational use and display the "military technical revolution" is more of concern to countries in the world of military theorists, it has triggered people with new ways of thinking to look at a modern local war theories, laws and operational guidance method Gulf War and the future high-tech war in a peep-hole

First, the reasons for the outbreak of war and background

The outbreak of any war has its specific causes and background The main reason leading to the outbreak of the Gulf War and the background are:

(A) Iraq invasion and occupation of Kuwait

At 1 o'clock on August 2, 1990 (Kuwait time), the Air Force, Navy, amphibious forces and special operations forces in close support and cooperation of the Iraqi Republican Guard in three divisions across the Kuwaiti border to Kuwait, launched a sudden attack on From a mechanized infantry division and an armored division compiled the main attack force along the Safwan - Abdali - Kuwait City, the implementation of the axis of attack, more than 350 tanks under the guidance of the first captured Jiahe December south Yamaguchi, and then folded towards the attack on Kuwait City Matched by an armored division assists woven force, main attack troops attacked south west, in Jiahe December Yamaguchi joined forces with the main attack, the continued south, in the main thoroughfare leading to the Saudi border to establish blocking positions 5:30, main attack forces and special operations forces in Kuwait City to join After about 14 hours of urban combat, 7 pm, the Iraqi army completely occupied the capital of Kuwait Followed by the continued development of attack, steady flow of follow-on force to enter Kuwait August 3 at noon throughout the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait From August 6 to enter the Iraqi army in Kuwait to reach about 20 million people, tanks and more than 2,000 vehicles August 8, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein declared that the annexation of Kuwait, to classify it as Iraq's "19th province" and said it "will always be an integral part of Iraq"

Kuwait is too weak, coupled with the surprise attack on the Iraqi military was not prepared, only a weak resistance KLA some 20,000 people, only more than 5,000 people evacuated to Saudi Arabia, the remaining troops collapsibility or surrender Kuwaiti Emir Jaber Al-Sabah and some of the Saudi royal family to flee by helicopter

Iraq's invasion and occupation of Kuwait's main purpose: To seize Kuwait, write off the huge debt owed to Kuwait, and use the "treasury" to solve due to stretching eight-year Iran-Iraq war to the national economy of the serious crisis; seizing of Kuwait, can be 50 kilometers of its coastline from the extended to 213 kilometers, thereby greatly improving its naval activities in the area and oil exports and other foreign trade sea routes; through the annexation of Kuwait, to resolve their longstanding boundary dispute and the resulting problems the border region's oil exploitation dispute; seizing Kuwait, could be "warning to others," shock and awe to play the Gulf countries and other Middle Eastern countries the role of leadership in the Arab world for its contention, clear the way to dominate the Middle East

Iraqi armed invasion and occupation of Kuwait, triggering the Gulf crisis as a direct trigger the Gulf War

(B) The United States and other countries in the Gulf region, the interests of

The reason why the Gulf region affects the United States and many other countries of the nerves, mainly in the region has an extremely rich in oil and natural gas of resources As of January 1990, the Gulf region has proven oil reserves of 6,517 billion barrels, the world's total proven oil reserves (10,015 billion barrels) and 65%, natural gas, 24 trillion cubic meters of natural gas resources of the world's combined 137% Nissan is about 1,450 million barrels of oil, accounting for the world's daily oil production (6,360 million barrels) of 23%; daily exports of about 1,200 million barrels of oil, accounting for the world's daily oil exports (2,800 million barrels) of 43% Five oil-producing countries in the Middle East (Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Iran and the UAE) are in the Gulf region The world's 20 mega-fields, there are 11 in the Gulf region

The Gulf region's oil production mainly for export The United States, Western Europe, Japan imported oil, a substantial portion comes from the Gulf region According to the US Energy Information statistics, the United States on the first quarter of 1990, net oil imports amounted to 7661 million barrels, of which 2064 million barrels from the Gulf region, accounting for 269%; Western Europe 8235 million barrels per day of imported oil, of which imports of 4276 million from the Gulf region, barrels, accounting for 519%; Japan's 548 million barrels of imported oil, of which imports from 354 million barrels in the Gulf region, accounting for 646%

Oil is the world's economic development, "blood", but also the driving force of modern armies If the Iraqi annexation of Kuwait and then occupation of Saudi Arabia, you can control more than half of the world's oil resources, which is like stuck in the throat of the major Western industrial countries Use the oil weapon in the hands of Saddam Hussein, you can manipulate the economic development of Western industrial countries, and can thus make indiscreet remarks on them This is the United States and other major industrial countries is absolutely intolerable

In addition, Kuwait is the world's few rich countries, its foreign assets of more than 1,000 billion US dollars, another important industry in the West still hold up to several billions of dollars of the shares If these capital and goods have been pulled out of Iraq, but also will result in huge losses in Western economies

(C) the US-Soviet detente, regional conflicts in the shadow of the US-Soviet confrontation disappeared

After the war more than 40 years time, due to social systems and ideological confrontation, as well as the needs of their supremacy in almost all regions of conflicts, people can see the shadow of the US-Soviet rivalry and antagonism Gorbachev came to power to implement reforms and new thinking, and actively move closer to the West in the political, military and diplomatic confrontation with the United States to abandon the position Iraq's move, imperceptibly to further promote contacts between the Soviet Union the United States wishes While Iraq is the Soviet Union in the Middle East for years, one of the few close allies, but in order to avoid the United States and other Western countries in opposing Iran's stance on the Soviet Union would rather sacrifice in Iraq this past allies In Iraq, the attitude of the Soviet Union and the United States on the United States President George W Bush was "very satisfied", saying it was "the US-Soviet conflict in the region for the first time the post-war alliance" The Soviet Union's basic position on the Gulf crisis on the line, so that smooth the UN Security Council sanctions against Iraq through a series of resolutions Although the Soviet Union to send troops did not directly participate in combat in Iraq, but it was a multinational force the United States sent troops to the Gulf of supportive attitude, so the US can take a variety of military action with impunity

(D) The international community strongly opposed to aggression

Of international relations has always been a kind of stake On the first day of Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, US President George W Bush issued a statement condemning Iraq's actions as "naked aggression" against the US national interest "constitute a real threat," and announced a freeze on Iraq and Kuwait in the United States all the assets At the same time made a strong military response, two aircraft carrier battle groups in Iraq, less than 1 hour after the invasion that the Division was ordered to sail the Gulf

The Soviet Union 40 years after the war a changed regional conflicts in the world hold the position with the United States opposing the norm August 3 Soviet Union reached a consensus and issued a "Joint Statement", demanded that Iraq "unconditionally withdraw from Kuwait", "the full restoration of Kuwait's sovereignty and territorial integrity of the legal regime" This is the US policy objectives in Iraq is fully consistent On the same day, the Soviet government stopped the supply of arms to Iraq with military assistance

Rest of the world the vast majority of countries or international organizations to the invasion of Iraq has made a rapid response, the general strongly resisted and condemned Iraq's aggression

The UN Security Council and Member States on the Gulf crisis of unprecedented very rapidly and almost exactly the same response August 2, the UN Security Council by 14 votes in favor, 0 votes against and 1 abstention, adopted a condemnation of the Iraqi violation of the Charter to require the withdrawal of the resolution No 660 From August 2 to November 29, the UN Security Council has passed 12 resolutions of condemnation and sanctions against Iraq These resolutions, so that Iraq's political, economic, military and diplomatic so in an extremely isolated position Resolution No 678 which provides that Iraq must withdraw deadline for January 15, 1991, the deadline to withdraw its troops in Iraq, if not, the resolution authorizes the United Nations Member States could use "all necessary means" to implement the United Nations adopted by the resolutions, which for the US-led 38-nation coalition into the Gulf, using force to resolve the crisis provided a legal basis

In the "final period" before the arrival of the international community to defuse the crisis made a great effort Leaders of many countries to mediate, to design a variety of mediation programs, the United Nations Secretary-General has arrived in Baghdad to do the pro-Iraq in the hope that Iraq withdraw its troops from the Division However, all these efforts have failed to enable Iraq to change its position War is inevitable