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Romanticism (literature)

I INTRODUCTION

Romanticism (literature), a movement in the literature of virtually every country of Europe, the United States, and Latin America that lasted from about 1750 to about 1870, characterized by reliance on the imagination and subjectivity of approach, freedom of thought and expression, and an idealization of nature The term romantic first appeared in 18th-century English and originally meant “romancelike”—that is, resembling the fanciful character of medieval romances

II ORIGINS AND INSPIRATION

By the late 18th century in France and Germany, literary taste began to turn from classical and neoclassical conventions (see Classic, Classical, and Classicism) Inspiration for the romantic approach initially came from two great shapers of thought, French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau and German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

A The Romantic Spirit

Rousseau established the cult of the individual and championed the freedom of the human spirit; his famous announcement was “I felt before I thought” Goethe and his compatriots, philosopher and critic Johann Gottfried von Herder and historian Justus Möser, provided more formal precepts and collaborated on a group of essays entitled Von deutscher Art und Kunst (Of German Style and Art, 1773) In this work the authors extolled the romantic spirit as manifested in German folk songs, Gothic architecture, and the plays of English playwright William Shakespeare Goethe sought to imitate Shakespeare's free and untrammeled style in his Götz von Berlichingen (1773; translated 1799), a historical drama about a 16th-century robber knight The play, which justifies revolt against political authority, inaugurated the Sturm und Drang (storm and stress) movement, a forerunner of German romanticism Goethe's novel The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774; translated 1779) was also in this tradition One of the great influential documents of romanticism, this work exalts sentiment, even to the point of justifying committing suicide because of unrequited love The book set a tone and mood much copied by the romantics in their works and often in their personal lives: a fashionable tendency to frenzy, melancholy, world-weariness, and even self-destruction

B The Romantic Style

The preface to the second edition of Lyrical Ballads (1800), by English poets William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge was also of prime importance as a manifesto of literary romanticism Here, the two poets affirmed the importance of feeling and imagination to poetic creation and disclaimed conventional literary forms and subjects Thus, as romantic literature everywhere developed, imagination was praised over reason, emotions over logic, and intuition over science—making way for a vast body of literature of great sensibility and passion This literature emphasized a new flexibility of form adapted to varying content, encouraged the development of complex and fast-moving plots, and allowed mixed genres (tragicomedy and the mingling of the grotesque and the sublime) and freer style

No longer tolerated, for example, were the fixed classical conventions, such as the famous three unities (time, place, and action) of tragedy An increasing demand for spontaneity and lyricism—qualities that the adherents of romanticism found in folk poetry and in medieval romance—led to a rejection of regular meters, strict forms, and other conventions of the classical tradition In English poetry, for example, blank verse largely superseded the rhymed couplet that dominated 18th-century poetry The opening lines of the swashbuckling melodrama Hernani (1830; translated 1830), by the great French romantic writer Victor Hugo, are a departure from the conventional 18th-century rules of French versification; and in the preface to his drama Cromwell (1827; translated 1896), a famous critical document in its own right, Hugo not only defended his break from traditional dramatic structure but also justified the introduction of the grotesque into art In their choice of heroes, also, the romantic writers replaced the static universal types of classical 18th-century literature with more complex, idiosyncratic characters; and a great deal of drama, fiction, and poetry was devoted to a celebration of Rousseau's “common man”

III THE GREAT ROMANTIC THEMES

As the romantic movement spread from France and Germany to England and then to the rest of Europe and across to the western hemisphere, certain themes and moods, often intertwined, became the concern of almost all 19th-century writers

A Libertarianism

Many of the libertarian (see Libertarianism) and abolitionist movements of the late 18th and early 19th centuries were engendered by the romantic philosophy—the desire to be free of convention and tyranny, and the new emphasis on the rights and dignity of the individual Just as the insistence on rational, formal, and conventional subject matter that had typified neoclassicism was reversed, the authoritarian regimes that had encouraged and sustained neoclassicism in the arts were inevitably subjected to popular revolutions Political and social causes became dominant themes in romantic poetry and prose throughout the Western world, producing many vital human documents that are still pertinent The year 1848, in which Europe was wracked by political upheaval, marked the flood tide of romanticism in Italy, Austria, Germany, and France

In William Tell (1804; translated 1825), by German dramatist Friedrich von Schiller, an obscure medieval mountaineer becomes an immortal symbol of opposition to tyranny and foreign rule In the novel The Betrothed (1825-1827; translated 1834), by Italian writer Alessandro Manzoni, a peasant couple become instruments in the final crushing of feudalism in northern Italy Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley, who for some most typify the romantic poet (in their personal lives as well as in their work), wrote resoundingly in protest against social and political wrongs and in defense of the struggles for liberty in Italy and Greece Russian poet Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin, whose admiration for the work of Byron is clearly manifested, attracted notoriety for his “Ode to Liberty” (1820); like many other romanticists, he was persecuted for political subversion

The general romantic dissatisfaction with the organization of society was often channeled into specific criticism of urban society La maison du berger (The Shepherd's Hut, 1844), by French poet Alfred Victor de Vigny, expresses the view that such an abode has more nobility than a palace Earlier, Rousseau had written that people were born free but that everywhere civilization put them in chains This feeling of oppression was frequently expressed in poetry—for example, in the work of English visionary William Blake, writing in the poem “Milton” (about 1804-1808) of the “dark Satanic mills” that were beginning to deface the English countryside; or in Wordsworth's long poem The Prelude (1850), which speaks of “ the close and overcrowded haunts/Of cities, where the human heart is sick”

B Nature

Basic to such sentiments was an interest central to the romantic movement: the concern with nature and natural surroundings Delight in unspoiled scenery and in the (presumably) innocent life of rural dwellers is perhaps first recognizable as a literary theme in such a work as “The Seasons” (1726-1730), by Scottish poet James Thomson The work is commonly cited as a formative influence on later English romantic poetry and on the nature tradition represented in English literature, most notably by Wordsworth Often combined with this feeling for rural life is a generalized romantic melancholy, a sense that change is imminent and that a way of life is being threatened Such intimations were early evinced in “Ode to Evening” (1747) by William Collins, “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” (1751) by Thomas Gray, and The Borough (1810) by George Crabbe The melancholic strain later developed as a separate theme, as in “Ode on Melancholy” (1820) by John Keats, or—in a different time and place—in the works of American writers: the novels and tales of Nathaniel Hawthorne, which probe the depths of human nature in puritanical New England, or the macabre tales and melancholy poetry of Edgar Allan Poe

In another vein in American literature, the romantic interest in untrammeled nature is found in such writers as Washington Irving, whose Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent (1819-1820), a collection of descriptive stories about the Hudson River valley, reflects the author's knowledge of European folktales as well as contemporary romantic poetry and the Gothic novel The Leather-Stocking Tales by James Fenimore Cooper celebrate the beauty of the American wilderness and the simple frontier life; in romantic fashion they also idealize the Native American as (in Rousseau's phrase) the “noble savage” By the middle of the 19th century the nature tradition was absorbed by American literary transcendentalism, chiefly expressed in the essays of Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau

C The Lure of the Exotic

In the spirit of their new freedom, romantic writers in all cultures expanded their imaginary horizons spatially and chronologically They turned back to the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) for themes and settings and chose locales ranging from the awesome Hebrides of the Ossianic tradition, as in the work of Scottish poet James MacPherson (see Ossian and Ossianic Ballads), to the Asian setting of Xanadu evoked by Coleridge in his unfinished lyric “Kubla Khan” (1797) The compilation of old English and Scottish ballads by English poet Thomas Percy was a seminal work; his Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765) exerted a significant influence on the form and content of later romantic poetry The nostalgia for the Gothic past mingled with the tendency to the melancholic and produced a fondness for ruins, graveyards, and the supernatural as themes In English literature, representative works include Keats's “The Eve of St Agnes,” the Gothic novels of Matthew Gregory Lewis, and The Castle of Otranto (1764) by Horace Walpole The Lay of the Last Minstrel (1805), by Scottish writer Sir Walter Scott, and his historical novels, the Waverley series (1814-1825), combine these concerns: love of the picturesque, preoccupation with the heroic past, and delight in mystery and superstition

D The Supernatural

The trend toward the irrational and the supernatural was an important component of English and German romantic literature It was reinforced on the one hand by disillusion with 18th-century rationalism and on the other by the rediscovery of a body of older literature—folktales and ballads—collected by Percy and by German scholars Jacob and Wilhelm Karl Grimm (see Grimm Brothers) and Danish writer Hans Christian Andersen From such material comes, for example, the motif of the doppelgänger (German for “double”) Many romantic writers, especially in Germany, were fascinated with this concept, perhaps because of the general romantic concern with self-identity Poet Heinrich Heine wrote a lyric apocryphally titled “Der Doppelgänger” (1827; translated 1846); The Devil's Elixir (1815-1816; translated 1824), a short novel by E T A Hoffmann, is about a double; and Peter Schlemihl's Remarkable Story (1814; translated 1927), by Adelbert von Chamisso, the tale of a man who sells his shadow to the devil, can be considered a variation on the theme Later, Russian master Fyodor Mikhaylovich Dostoyevsky wrote his famous novel The Double (1846), an analysis of paranoia in a humble clerk

IV DECLINE OF THE TRADITION

By about the middle of the 19th century, romanticism began to give way to new literary movements: the Parnassians and the symbolist movement in poetry, and realism and naturalism in prose

See also American Literature: Poetry; American Literature: Prose; Brazilian Literature; Danish Literature; Dutch Literature; English Literature; French Literature; German Literature; Italian Literature; Latin American Literature; Polish Literature; Portuguese Literature; Russian Literature; Spanish Literature; Swedish Literature

Contributed By:

Robert J Clements

Microsoft ® Encarta ® Encyclopedia 2003 © 1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation All rights reserved

一个秋日的午后，诗人雪莱在意大利佛罗伦萨近郊的树林里漫步。突然狂风大作，乌云翻滚。到了傍晚，暴风雨夹带着冰雹雷电倾盆而下，荡涤着大地，震撼着人间。大自然威武雄壮的交响乐，触发了诗人的灵感，他奋笔疾书，谱写了不朽的抒情短诗《西风颂》。这是1819年的事情。

当时，欧洲各国的工人运动和革命运动风起云涌。英国工人阶级为了争取自身的生存权利，正同资产阶级展开英勇的斗争，捣毁机器和罢工事件接连不断。1819年8月，曼彻斯特八万工人举行了声势浩大的游行示威，反动当局竟出动军队野蛮镇压，制造了历史上著名的彼得卢大屠杀事件。雪莱满怀悲愤，写下了长诗《暴政的假面游行》，对资产阶级政府的血腥暴行提出严正抗议。法国自拿破仑帝制崩溃、波旁王朝复辟以后，阶级矛盾异常尖锐，广大人民正酝酿着反对封建复辟势力的革命斗争。拿破仑帝国的解体也大大促进了西班牙人民反对异族压迫和封建专制的革命运动，1819年1月，终于响起了武装起义的枪声。就在武装起义的前夕，雪莱给西班牙人民献上了《颂歌》一首，为西班牙革命吹响了进军的号角。在意大利和希腊，民族解放运动方兴未艾，雪莱的《西风颂》发表不久，这两个国家也先后爆发了轰轰烈烈的武装起义。面对着欧洲山雨欲来风满楼的革命形势，雪莱为之鼓舞，为之振奋，诗人胸中沸腾着炽热的革命激情。这时，在一场暴风骤雨的自然景象的触发下，这种难以抑制的革命激情立刻冲出胸膛，一泻千里，化作激昂慷慨的歌唱：

你怒吼咆哮的雄浑交响乐中，

将有树林和我的深沉的歌唱，

我们将唱出秋声，婉转而忧愁。

精灵呀，让我变成你，猛烈、刚强!

把我僵死的思想驱散在宇宙，

像一片片的枯叶，以鼓舞新生；

请听从我这个诗篇中的符咒，

把我的话传给全世界的人，

犹如从不灭的炉中吹出火花!

雪莱在歌唱西风。他歌唱西风以摧枯拉朽的巨大力量扫除破败的残叶，无情地把那“黑的、惨红的、铅灰的，或者蜡黄，患瘟疫而死掉的一大群”垃圾扫除干净；他歌唱西风“在动乱的太空中掀起激流”，搅动着“浓云密雾”，呼唤着“电火、冰雹和黑的雨水”，“为这将逝的残年唱起挽歌”；他歌唱西风唤醒沉睡的浩翰大海，波涛汹涌，把一丛丛躲藏在海底深处的海树海花，吓得惊恐色变，“瑟瑟地发抖，纷纷凋谢”。雪莱歌唱西风，同时也在歌唱席卷整个欧洲的革命风暴。他歌唱革命运动正以排山倒海之势，雷霆万钧之力，横扫旧世界一切黑暗反动势力。革命运动风起云涌，一顶顶皇冠随风落地，一群群妖魔鬼怪望风逃遁，这正是当时欧洲革命形势的生动写照。

雪莱在歌唱西风。他歌唱西风“是破坏者，又是保护者”。他歌唱西风不仅扫除了残枝败叶，而且“送飞翔的种籽到它们的冬床”。待到来年春天，西风的妹妹——东风驾临大地，就会“蓓蕾儿吐馨”，“漫山遍野铺上了姹紫嫣红”，出现一个春光明媚的新世界。雪莱歌唱西风，同时也在歌唱革命。他和那些资产阶级凡夫俗子不同，他没有把革命简单地看作消极的破坏力量。他看到了革命一方面在扫除腐朽，无情地摧毁旧世界，另一方面又在“鼓舞新生”，积极地在创建着美好的新世界。尽管雪莱对新世界的理解还比较空泛，还不可能突破空想社会主义的水平。

雪莱在歌唱西风。但他不是冷眼旁观的歌者，他强烈地热爱西风，向往西风，他以西风自喻，西风是他的灵魂，他的肉体，诗人和西风合而为一：

如果我是任你吹的落叶一片；

如果我是随着你飞翔的云块；

如果是波浪，在你威力下急湍，

享受你神力的推动，自由自在，

几乎与你一样，啊，你难制的力!

再不然，如果能回返童年时代，

常陪伴着你在太空任意飘飞，

以为要比你更神速也非幻想；

那我就不致处此窘迫的境地，

向你苦苦求告：啊，快使我高扬，

像一片树叶、一朵云、一阵浪涛!

我碰上人生的荆棘，鲜血直淌!

时光的重负困住我，把我压倒，

我太像你了：难驯、迅速而骄傲。

这是雪莱在歌唱西风，同时在激励和鞭策自己。雪莱是一个热情的浪漫主义诗人，同时又是一个勇敢的革命战士，他以诗歌作武器，积极投身革命运动，经受过失败和挫折，但始终保持着高昂的战斗精神。他早年就赴爱尔兰参加民族解放斗争，回到英国后继续抨击暴政，鼓吹革命，同情和支持工人运动。因而受到资产阶级反动政府的迫害，不得不愤然离开自己的祖国。在旅居意大利期间，他与意大利“烧炭党”人和希腊革命志士来往密切，同情和支持他们的革命活动。在《西风颂》里，熔铸着雪莱坎坷的人生道路，倾注着雪莱对反动统治者的满腔愤恨，洋溢着雪莱不屈不挠的战斗精神，表达了雪莱献身革命的强烈愿望。

《西风颂》是秋天的歌，是时代的声音。19世纪初叶，科学社会主义还没有诞生，欧洲各国的工人运动还处在自发阶段，封建贵族和资产阶级的反动势力还很强大，“神圣同盟”的魔影正在到处游荡着。大地还没有苏醒，寒冬还在后头。所以，《西风颂》不免带有“婉转而忧愁”的调子。但作为社会主义思想的先驱，雪莱对革命前途和人类命运始终保持着乐观主义的坚定信念，他坚信正义必定战胜邪恶，光明必定代替黑暗。从总的倾向来看，《西风颂》的旋律又是“猛烈、刚强”的。诗人以“天才的预言家”的姿态向全世界大声宣告：

如果冬天来了，春天还会远吗

《西风颂》是欧洲诗歌史上的艺术珍品。全诗共五节，由五首十四行诗组成。从形式上看，五个小节格律完整，可以独立成篇。从内容来看，它们又熔为一体，贯穿着一个中心思想。第一节描写西风扫除林中残叶，吹送生命的种籽。第二节描写西风搅动天上的浓云密雾，呼唤着暴雨雷电的到来。第三节描写西风掀起大海的汹涌波涛，摧毁海底花树。三节诗三个意境，诗人幻想的翅膀飞翔在树林、天空和大海之间，飞翔在现实和理想之间，形象鲜明，想象丰富，但中心思想只有一个，就是歌唱西风扫除腐朽、鼓舞新生的强大威力。从第四节开始，由写景转向抒情，由描写西风的气势转向直抒诗人的胸臆，抒发诗人对西风的热爱和向往，达到情景交融的境界，而中心思想仍然是歌唱西风。因此，结构严谨，层次清晰，主题集中，是《西风颂》一个突出的艺术特点。

其次，《西风颂》采用的是象征手法，整首诗从头至尾环绕着秋天的西风作文章，无论是写景还是抒情，都没有脱离这个特定的描写对象，没有使用过一句政治术语和革命口号。然而读了这首短诗以后，我们却深深感受到，雪莱在歌唱西风，又不完全是歌唱西风，诗人实质上是通过歌唱西风来歌唱革命。诗中的西风、残叶、种籽、流云、暴雨雷电、大海波涛、海底花树等等，都不过是象征性的东西，它们包含着深刻的寓意，大自然风云激荡的动人景色，乃是人间蓬勃发展的革命斗争的象征性反映。从这个意义上说，《西风颂》不是风景诗，而是政治抒情诗，它虽然没有一句直接描写革命，但整首诗都是在反映革命。尤其是结尾脍炙人口的诗句，既概括了自然现象，也深刻地揭示了人类社会的历史规律，指出了革命斗争经过艰难曲折走向胜利的光明前景，寓意深远，余味无穷，一百多年来成了人们广泛传诵的名言警句。