美国文学 浪漫主义 现代主义 现实主义 之中关於希望的诗

一）浪漫主义文学的基本特征

浪漫主义文学的基本特征：

1 强烈的主观色彩，偏爱表现主观思想，注重抒发个人的感受和体验。重主观，轻客观和重自我表现，轻客观模仿。

2 喜欢描写和歌颂大自然。(尤为突出)

作者们喜欢将自己的理解人物置身于纯朴宁静的大自然中，衬托现实社会的丑恶及自身理解的美好。

3重视中世纪民间文学。想象比较丰富、感情真挚、表达自由、语言朴素自然。

4注重艺术效果：异国青岛情调、对比、夸张、人物形象的超凡性。

（二）现实主义文学的基本特征

现实主义文学基本特征：一，注重对生活的观察、体验，力求使艺术描写在外观上、细节上符合实际生活的形态、面貌和逻辑；二，注重典型化方法的运用，力求在艺术描写中，通过细节的真实表现生活的本质，规律；三，作家一般不在作品中直抒感情，作品的思想倾向较为隐蔽。

浪漫主义(Romanticism)：是后发起于18世纪西欧的艺术性和创新运动。一种文学艺术的基本创作方法和风格，与现实主义同为文学艺术史上的两大主要思潮。浪漫主义（英语romantic）一词源出南欧一些古罗马省府的语言和文学。这些地区的不同方言原系拉丁语和当地方言混杂而成，后来发展成罗曼系语言（the Romance languages）。在 11～12世纪 ， 大量地方语言文学中的传奇故事和民谣就是用罗曼系语言写成的。这些作品着重描写中世纪骑士的神奇事迹、侠义气概及其神秘非凡，具有这类特点的故事后来逐渐称为romance ，即骑士故事或传奇故事。浪漫主义思潮在文学、美术、建筑、音乐等艺术领域都有所体现。

作为创作方法和风格，浪漫主义在表现现实上，强调主观与主体性，侧重表现理想世界，把情感和想象提到创作的首位，常用热情奔放的语言、超越现实的想象和夸张的手法塑造理想中的形象。古今中外的文艺创作自始就有这种特色。如中国屈原、李白的诗歌和吴承恩的小说《西游记》，德国的歌德和席勒、法国的雨果和乔治·桑、英国的拜伦和雪莱等人的作品中都具有鲜明的浪漫主义特色。

作为文艺思潮，浪漫主义产生并风行于18世纪末～19世纪初的欧洲。其时正值资产阶级革命的时代，资产阶级处于上升时期，要求个性解放和感情自由，在政治上反抗封建主义的统治，在文学艺术上反对古典主义的束缚。为适应这样的需要，浪漫主义思潮应运而生。

浪漫主义文学 浪漫主义精神最先出现在文学中。在法国，浪漫主义的先驱者是卢梭，他宣扬感情至上和人的本性善良。一批作家响应他的“回归自然”的口号，在创作中抒发对大自然的感受，描绘大自然的魅力，抒发对美好事物 、自由理想和乡土的热爱追求和依恋。法国早期浪漫主义的代表是夏多布里昂。他的创作缅怀过去的理想，宣扬宗教的威力，表现出浓厚的消极思想与情绪。1800年斯塔尔夫人发表了著作《论文学》，介绍了她对浪漫主义的观点。在这部著作和另一部著作《论德国》中，她提出了浪漫主义民族主义的问题，奠定了法国浪漫主义的理论基础。雨果的《克伦威尔》序言和《爱尔那尼》一剧的上演成功，标志着浪漫主义对古典主义的胜利。雨果的作品气势恢宏，具有强烈的理想主义色彩，表现了对中下层人民群众的深厚同情，是法国也是欧洲浪漫主义文学的杰作。乔治·桑表现空想社会主义理想，揭露金钱万能罪恶的小说在法国浪漫主义文学中也属优秀作品。然而，严格地说，浪漫主义还是起源于德国和英国。浪漫主义最早的主要表现是德国的狂飙突进时期。施莱格尔兄弟在18世纪最后几十年中成为德国浪漫主义的领袖。施莱格尔兄弟编辑的刊物《雅典娜神殿》，在推动浪漫主义运动的宣传和理论建设方面起了重要作用，被称为耶拿派浪漫主义。他们要求个性解放，主张创作自由，提出打破各门艺术界限。但他们的浪漫主义理论带有浓厚的主观唯心主义和宗教神秘主义色彩。德国浪漫主义的另一个派别是海德堡派 。代表人物有阿尔尼姆、布伦坦诺和格林兄弟等人，重视民间文学，深入民间收集民歌和童话，对浪漫主义文学发展起过积极作用。此外，霍夫曼、荷尔德林、海涅、歌德、席勒等人的创作也在德国浪漫主义文学中占有重要地位。英国浪漫主义的主要代表是湖畔派诗人华兹华斯、柯尔律治和骚塞 。华兹华斯在《抒情歌谣集》再版序言中把诗歌看作“强烈感情的自然流露”，这篇序言后来成为英国浪漫主义诗人的宣言。19世纪初英国浪漫主义文学的代表是拜伦、雪莱和济慈等人。他们抨击封建教会势力，表现出争取自由和进步的民主倾向，在艺术上发展和丰富了浪漫主义诗歌的形式和格律。小说中的代表司各特善于把历史事件和大胆想象有机结合起来，创造出丰富多彩的画面。在西欧浪漫主义思潮的影响和推动下，19世纪初俄国诗人茹科夫斯基打破古典主义规范 ，创作了许多优美的抒情诗和叙事诗，对俄国浪漫主义的兴起起了重要作用。十二月党诗人和普希金、莱蒙托夫的早期浪漫主义创作，充满了革命激情，讴歌反专制、争自由的思想，是俄国浪漫主义文学的卓越代表。东欧浪漫主义文学以波兰革命诗人A密茨凯维奇和匈牙利革命诗人S裴多菲为代表 ，他们的创作具有鲜明的爱国主义精神和浓郁的民族特色。19世纪中期以后，欧洲的浪漫主义文学逐步被现实主义文学所取代。

浪漫主义美术 18世纪60～70年代，一些在罗马的画家曾在新古典主义艺术的严格学院主义原则范围以外探索各种可能的途径。其中瑞士人亨利·富塞利以其所画奇怪异常而最为突出，其《梦魔》一画着重刻画了思想的非理性方面的力量。英国画家和诗人布莱克在基督教神话的基础上，发展了他自己精心构制的宇宙论，他的水彩画技巧精美绝伦。在后来一代的画家中康斯特布尔和泰纳把水彩画技法的鲜艳性和油彩结合使用。康斯特布尔画英国乡村景色，探索了大气的光和色的复杂性。泰纳发挥了光的自然效果，创造出有动力感的构图，使观众如历其境，似乎在随画面一起游动。在德国，风景画家龙格力图以象征手法把个人的心灵气质描绘为普通的自然灵性的一部分。弗里德里希是虔诚的宗教徒 ，他以高入云霄的一棵孤树或十字架之类形象来暗示自然和心灵的可敬可畏。在法国，采用历史和文学题材的主要浪漫主义画家是德拉克洛瓦。除在色彩和光方面进行实验外，他以雄健的笔力表现了他的感情。异国的主题，特别是北非沙漠的游牧生活使他着迷。其热情洋溢地描绘动物生活的作品 ，反映了他和热里柯相似的兴趣，后者在选择当代事件作为创作题材方面很有革命性。

现实主义：

就西欧说，现实主义是从文艺复兴到十九世纪这一特定历史时期形成的一种文艺思潮和创作方法，也是西欧资产阶级登上历史舞台以及确立政治统治时期出现的一种文学现象。

作为文学的一个专门术语，现实主义最早出现在十八世纪德国的剧作家席勒的理论著作中。但是，"现实主义"作为一种文艺思潮、文学流泥和创作方法的名称广则首先出现于法国文坛．法语中的Realisme一词，来源于拉丁文Realistas(现实，实际)。现实主义名称的出现和这种文艺思潮的存在完全是两码事。在法国，现实主义之称始于十九世纪五十年代。最初，由法国小说家商弗洛利(1821--1599)用现实主义当作表现艺术新样式的名词，他于1850年在《艺术中的现实主义》一文中，初次用这个术语作为批判现实主义文学艺术的标志。其 后，法国画家库尔贝(1819--1877)在绘画上提倡现实主义。

一八五五年，库尔贝举办了一次个人画展，引起一场大辩论，文艺史上称为"现实主义大论战"。就在这次沦战中，库尔贝创办了一种定期性的刊物，命名为《现实主义》。一八五七年，库尔贝的热心支持者商弗洛利又把他的文集定名为《现实主义者》，从此在欧洲文坛上正式树立起一面现实主义的旗帜，这一术语也就在法国流行起来了。众所周知，巴尔扎克 (1799--1850)是现实主义这个名词最深刻含义上的作家，他 的《人间喜剧》乃是深刻的规范化的现实主义文学。但是，巴尔扎克正如这一流派的伙伴们司汤达，狄更斯、萨克雷以及果戈理一样，都不曾用"现实主义"这一名词来标明他们的新型的文学流派。在俄国，首先使用这个术语的是文艺理论家皮萨列夫(见他的(现实主义者》)，不过，那已是十九世纪六十年代的事了。

一般说，凡是在形象中能最充分地表现现实生活的典型特征的，都叫做现实主义作品。法国文学史家爱弥尔·法盖解释说："现实主义是明确地冷静地观察人间的事件，再明确地冷静地将它描写出来的艺术主张。……要从几千几万的现实事件中，选择出最有意义韵事件，再将这些事件整理起来，使之产生强烈的印象"这同恩格斯所说的"除了细节上的真实之外，现实主义还要求如实地再现典型环境中的典型人物"的定义基本一致。如果我们不把现实主义简单地理解为各种真正艺术所固有的现实性，而是理解为单独具有一整套性格描写的原则和艺术方法的话，那末，在西欧来说，现实主义的形成，一般认为在文艺复兴时期。从文艺复兴的现实主义到十九世纪二十年代的批判现实主义，其中又有十八世纪启蒙时代的现实主义。文艺复兴时期的现实主义以描写人物生动的丰富的感情，欲望和感受而著称它表现出人类的崇高，人物性格的完整，纯洁，而且富有诗意。但在分析社会关系方面又不及启蒙时代的现实主义。后者具有更多的社会性和分析性，强调创作要有明确的社会目的相思想教育作用。

十九世纪的批判现实主义思潮既是历史的继承，又是现实的创新。它总汇了十八世纪以前的文学经验，补充了文艺复兴时代现实主义历史具体性之不足，摆脱了古典主义的理性原则，克服了启蒙时代现实主义的说教成份和浪漫主义的主观性。它又从文艺复兴文学中接受了性格描绘的具体性从古典主义和启蒙时代文学中接受了社会分析因素，从浪漫主义中汲取了一些激情，但它逐渐丧失了前代文学中特有的乐观主义，却沾染了无法摆脱的悲观主义。十九世纪的批判现实主义仿佛是文艺复兴和启蒙时代现实主义特点的有机结合；又在新的历史条件下加以发展。它能从事物的运动和发展中，从人与环境的多种关系中去描写人，特别是它在再现典型环境中的典型性格，再现社会生活的真实，直接分析社会的经济关系，对现实作出尖锐的揭露和批判方面，又达到前所未有的程度。在世界文学史上，十九世纪的批判现实主义文学，成了欧洲资产阶级文学艺术发展的最高峰。

一、丰富的想象——超现实的情节

　　浪漫主义是文学艺术上的一种创作方法,指运用丰富的想象和夸张,塑造人物形象,反映现实生活著名美学大师朱光潜在《谈美书简》中引述亚里士多德的话将浪漫主义定义为“按照事物应有的样子去模仿”,强调其“理想”与人的主观因素可以说,丰富的想象是浪漫主义最为本质的特征　　　　二、大胆的夸张——无法考究的细节

　　夸张指文艺创作中突出描写对象某些特点的手法作为修辞方式,它是指为了启发听者或读者的想象力和加强所说话的力量,用夸大的词句来形容事物应该说,大胆的夸张是浪漫主义的基本特征　　三、强烈的抒情——极端鲜明的爱憎

　　在文学史上,浪漫主义文学都特别重视对于自己的理想的描绘,并把它和现实对立起来,以表达对现实的不满和反抗由于在描绘理想的过程中,必须从作者的内心感受出发,抒发出自身强烈的主观愿望,所以感情色彩特别浓烈重理想的表达,有强烈的抒情色彩,是浪漫主义的又一个基本特征

20世纪西方音乐史么。。。我选的是

BABAA

BCCBB

CABAC

DBCAB

CC

对不对。。就不知道了，，，按照他那个课写的- -望采纳，谢谢

浪漫主义时期开始于十八世纪末,到内战爆发为止,是美国文学史上最重要的时期。华盛顿·欧文出版的《见闻札记》标志着美国浪漫主义文学的开端,惠特曼的《草叶集》是浪漫主义时期文学的压卷之作。浪漫主义时期的文学是美国文学的繁荣时期,所以也称为美国的文艺复兴。美国社会的发展哺育了一个伟大民族的文学。年轻的美国没有历史的沉重包袱,很快在政治、经济和文化方面成长为一个独立的国家。这一时期也是美国历史上西部扩张时期,到1860年领土已开拓到太平洋西岸。到十九世纪中叶,美国已由原来的十三个州扩大到二十一个州,人口从1790年的四百万增至 1860年的三千万。在经济上,年轻的美国经历向工业的转化,影响所及不仅仅是城市,而且也包括农村。蒸汽动力在工、农业生产上的运用、工厂的建立、劳动力的大量需求以及科技上的发明创造使经济生活得到了重组。另外,大量移民促进了工业更加蓬勃的发展。政治上,民主与平等成为这个年轻国家的理想,产生了两党制。值得一提的是这个国家的文学和文化生活。随着独立的美国政府的成立,美国人民已感到需要有美国文学,表达美国人民所特有的经历:早期清教徒的殖民, 与印第安人的遭遇,边疆开发者的生活以及西部荒原等。这个年轻国家的文学富有想象,已产生了一种文学环境。报刊杂志如雨后春笋,出现了一大批文学读者,形成了十九世纪上半叶蓬勃的浪漫主义的文学思潮。

浪漫主义是十九世纪初叶，兴起于法国画坛的一个艺术流派。这一画派摆脱了当时学院派和古典主义羁绊，偏重于发挥艺术家自己的想象和创造，创作题材取自现实生活。

浪漫主义艺术特点

1重感情和个性，重视色彩和色调。

2主张创作自由、个性解放和艺术独创。

3强调艺术幻想与激情，善于运用象征、寓意、夸张、对比的表现手法。

4取材重大事件 神话 文学著作。

浪漫主义的两个特征：

1艺术成为了以个人感情为基础的创造，强调主观感情，努力表现人的内心世界。

2一切能激发艺术家热情和想象的事物都成为他们创作的对象，追求新奇的思想态度。

代表人物:籍里柯 德拉克罗瓦

籍里柯（1791-1824）

浪漫主义的先驱者，重视创新，代表作《梅杜萨之筏》浪漫主义的开派作品。取材于真实的海难故事

《梅杜萨之筏》创作草图

《梅杜萨之筏》创作草图

《梅杜萨之筏》

德拉克洛瓦(1798-1863）浪漫主义的典型代表，有“浪漫主义的狮子”之称的画家。

他相信绘画中的色彩和激情比素描和理性更重要。倡导主观动态奔放多变光色。是一位色彩的革新者，以色彩来补充素描的不足之处。

绘画的特点：文学的叙事性 色彩的表现性 象征性。

1 强烈的主观色彩,偏爱表现主观思想,注重抒发个人的感受和体验重主观,轻客观和重自我表现,轻客观模仿

2 喜欢描写和歌颂大自然(尤为突出)

作者们喜欢将自己的理解人物置身于纯朴宁静的大自然中,衬托现实社会的丑恶及自身理解的美好

3重视中世纪民间文学想象比较丰富、感情真挚、表达自由、语言朴素自然

4注重艺术效果：异国青岛情调、对比、夸张、人物形象的超凡性

romanticism

American Romanticism

The romantic period in Britain runs from 1790 until 1830 In America the Romantic period runs from about 1800 until 1860 So we can see that the Romantic Movement in America began a few years after it’s European cousin and continues for a much longer period after

Examples of European Writers; Wordsworth, Blake, Coleridge, Shelley, Keats, Byron, Goethe, Schelling Important American Romantic Writers:

Washington Irving

James Fenimoore Cooper

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Henry David Thoreau

Herman Melville

Nathaniel Hawthorne

Walt Whitman

Edgar Allen Poe

European and especially British romanticism was a big influence on American writers The important influences to remember are-

Gothic- gothic writers such as Ann Radcliffe, who wrote such works as The Mysteries of Udolfo, and The Italian, Matthew Lewis and, the tales of ETA Hoffman all were influential Gothic themes include solitude, ghosts, the natural world, darkness, death, doubling of characters and the devil

Sir Walter Scott- his border tales, where he writes of Scotland in a way that describes it as a wilderness was a big influence on James Fenimore Cooper, who wrote of American wilderness The book says “Scott was, in a way, responsible for the romantic description of landscape in American literature” (41)

Oriental Romances- these were an influence on the attempt by American Romanticists to develop a literature that dealt with American Indians, as writers like Longfellow, Cooper and Freneau all tried to do The important texts here were Byron’s tales such as Manfred, The Corsair and Lara, all of which dealt thematically with people of different cultures (in this case Muslims in the middle East), and these were adapted by the American writers

Wordsworth and Coleridge- firstly because of Lyrical Ballads, which was one of the very first “democratic” books of poetry- it wrote in very ordinary language of the concerns of common people, without using poetic artifice In a nation such as America, this was very important, as it matched what writers were trying to do in a land that was seen by Americans as totally democratic and egalitarian: as Crevecouer says “We are the most perfect society now existing in the world Here man is as free as he ought to be; nor is this pleasing equality so transient as others are” (39) Stylistically the book was also important in that it used traditional ballad forms which American writers adopted for their own ends- eg Longfellow, give examples on p170+ Secondly, because of the reverence that these poets felt for nature Both Coleridge and Wordsworth found that there was holiness present in Nature that was beneficial to the spirit of man- quote here This proved to be a big influence on the New England Transcendentalists, who we shall study in the next class, who combined Romantic and Puritan attitudes towards nature, and also they were a big influence on Walt Whitman

Politics All of the important English Romantic poets held very radical, democratic ideas as to how society should be governed They all disliked monarchy, and social privilege, and believed that ordinary men and women should have more of an influence on the way that government was run Since Americans were so proud of their own country being a democracy and a republic (no king) this theme too found a ready audience in America English Romantics were all influenced by the French revolution, which they saw as a model way of governing society, and this was reflected in America, in writers such as Thomas Paine

Interest in folk culture The German writers, the Brothers Grimm, and Hoffman drew on folk tales and stories in their work- as Washington Irving does in his Sketch Book stories

Differences

Yet we cannot say that American Romanticism was a mere copy of European Romanticism There were a number off factors that made it unique to the country

Newness For Americans in the early 19th century, their country and their landscape was an entirely new one Unlike in Europe, where landscape always carried with it overtones of history – cf “Tintern Abbey”- America seemed to be an entirely fresh and new land, one that did not have lots of traces of continuous human habitation on it America was on the whole a wilderness, undiscovered and unspoiled The trees and wildlife were totally different So there were no nightingales or skylarks, but different birds, and trees that in Europe carried a symbolic power- such as the oak for wisdom, or the yew tree for age- did not exist here The newness of the whole place meant that even fairly ordinary, day-to-day things were very interesting, and lots of American writers wrote about ordinary events in a way that made them fresh and exciting Irving wrote of the Hudson Valley, William Cullen Bryant wrote of the wild west as did Cooper On the other hand, some writers felt that this newness also meant an absence of history Washington Irving was attracted to Europe because he felt that it had history- on page 54 – “Europe held forth the charms of storied and poetical associationsthe accumulated treasures of ages” Etc

Puritanism Although in the early nineteenth century, America was a significantly less religious society than it had been 100 years before, Puritanism remained a strong influence The public opinion was still overwhelmingly Puritan, and this meant that American Romanticism was more Puritan than its European counterpart This happened in two ways Firstly American writers were often very didactic- they did not hesitate to moralize about the people they were writing about Washington Irving takes a moralistic tone towards his characters, though he is also quite kind and charitable towards their faults The other result of Puritanism was that certain topics remained off limits- specifically sex Romanticism in England had often engaged with this topic- The Monk talks of fetishism and incest, Coleridge’s “Christabel” talks of a lesbian relationship, Shelley was a great believer in free love (“Epipsychidion”) and Byron based his public persona in a large part on his attractiveness to women In America, authors were more reticent The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne talks of adultery, but only in terms of its effects on people, but not of the act itself Edgar Allen Poe, though very graphic in lots of ways was also very prudish when it came to sex and love

The ideals of Americans were also different They thought of America as a new Garden of Eden, and believed strongly in individualism and equality, to the extent that they saw themselves as a new kind of man- a pioneer This pioneering spirit was different from European Romanticism, where man used nature as a retreat, rather than something to be explored Later Romantic writers, such as Emerson, in his “The American Scholar” and Whitman gave expression to this new kind of man

Optimism I spoke last week of the optimistic character of the Puritans, and the idea of optimism continues throughout American Romanticism European Romantics were on the whole a pessimistic bunch, who wrote a lot about the negative states of feeling: Shelley’s “Dejection: An Ode”, Goethe’s Sorrows of Young Werther, and Keats’ Ode to Melancholy American Romantics did not dwell on the bad parts of human feeling; rather they concentrated on the good emotions- joy, love, happiness etc

There were also other differences between American and European Romanticism

Childhood “The child is the father to the man” said Wordsworth The idea of childhood as the central defining factor in a person’s life was central to the European Romantic imagination, but American romanticism did not place such a great an emphasis on it

Industry The Industrial/bourgeoisie revolution took place in England from 1750 onwards The new kind of society it built up- where some people got very rich of the work of others, the filthy living conditions, inhuman working conditions, that made men seem scarcely human, etc made the city and the modern world something that Romantic poets in Europe flee from- eg Coleridge, “This Lime-tree Bower, my Prison” or Keats’ “To One who has been Long in the City Pent” In America on the other hand, the attitude was different America was becoming very wealthy very quickly, and this growing economic confidence, coupled with a growing sense of political confidence, meant that as a nation American writers were less concerned with the problems of industrialization and money

Problems of American Romanticism

Society Although they referred to equality and democracy as founding aspects of their identity, American Romanticists were often less committed to attacking the social problems of the day, such as slavery and the question of what to do with American Indians

Derivative Lots of American poets copied English ones, quite obviously The New England Poets, Longfellow, William Bryant, John Whittier and Oliver Wendell Holmes, all copied English authors , such as Cowper, Dryden and Pope, who were, and are, not popular even in England So the poetry can sound very dated to modern ears, as often it was quite clearly aping the past masters

美国浪漫主义时期追崇的是一种对自然的向往，这个可以追溯到colonial literature和indian literature时期，以最为典型的部族cherokee为例，那时的人们信奉how the world was made里面所说的，世界是由nature spirit所做成的，而不是我们现在所说的上帝造人或者女娲抟土造人，而是由一种归根于自然的精神力量所造就。

cherokee的人们信奉所有的生灵生来平等，你不知道你死去以后再次重生会成为什么，所以他们崇敬自然，尊重土地，从来不去想着要占有土地。他们以七为尊，认为7是神圣的，他们有7个分支部族，每个部族都有一个动物作为代表，例如bear，代表the power of buliding and hunting，wolf,代表the ability of hunting and agressive

同时在他们的神话how the world was made 中间，太阳被人们抬到了七个“手”的距离，所有的动物植物要经过7天的祷告，经过stick with a fish之后，七天生一个孩子从而出现了第一批人类。等等，可见他们对自然力量的推崇到了无与伦比的境界。

这种信奉nature spirit的理念一直延续下来

到了浪漫主义时期，人们对自然仍旧有着无比的尊敬和推崇，在浪漫主义文学中有很多文学作品都有着许多对自然景色的着重描写，写了自然的力量的伟大，比如therotopsis中，对于死亡的慨叹也是对于自然规律的体验。

nature在这里面应该值得是一种精神力量，一种对于精神层面的憧憬，注重精神世界的建立。可以通过与后面现实主义作为对比，现实主义更加注重的是实实在在的东西，是带有功利色彩的，而浪漫主义更注重inner world。

刚刚学习完美国文学，这是通过自己的理解和外教的讲解写出来的，希望对你有帮助