各国的语言最早是怎么相互翻译的

语言的起源和人类的起源一样久远。可是，人类用书面记录的语言材料只有几千年，在这之前上万年的放言情况我们几乎一点儿也不知道。所以至今所有关于语言起源的解释，都不过是一种假设。有人提出“感叹说”，认为语言起源于表达情感的感叹词；有人提出“劳动喊声说”，认为语言起源于繁重劳动中的喊叫；有人提出“摹声说”，认为语言起源于对自然界原有声音的摹仿；也有人提出“达达说”，认为语言起源于“达达”发声的舌头动作和手势；还有人提出“唱歌说”，认为语言起源于原始仪式中不清晰的赞歌，等等。所有这些假设都无法通过事实来验证，因此科学家之间谁也说不服谁。为避免再发生这种毫无结果的争论，国外有个语言学会在章程中竟明文规定，凡入会者一律不得谈论语言的起源。

我国多数专家接受的是马克思主义的语言起源，认为“劳动创造语言”。我们的祖先在生产劳动中与自然灾害作斗争时需要齐心协力，互相配合，自然就需要用某种信号把大家的行动统一起来，各种信号如果以一定的声音为标志，就成了最初的语言。我们可以设想一下一群人在一起抬木头的情景。大家为了统一用力的时机和方向，总是要“嗨哟，嗨哟”地喊号子。这个“嗨哟，嗨哟”在最初可能没有什么特定的含义，可是时间一长，人们一听到这个号子就自然而然地会想起“抬东西”这个意思，于是“嗨哟，嗨哟”就成了原始的语言。当然，语言的产生还有两个重要的条件，这就是发音器官和大脑思维的复杂化。劳动使类人猿能够直立行走，使它们的发音器官有利于发出各种各样的声音；同时，使手与各种事物的接触更加频繁，刺激了大脑的机能，促进了思维的发展。

刚刚创造出来的原始语言，现在只能肯定它是有声音和有意义的，别的还没有办法知道。从古至今人类一直对语言的起源兴趣浓厚，并提出了多种多样的解释。

原来，在人类社会科学并不发达的时候，人们选择宗教来解释语言的起源。古希腊哲学家苏革拉底曾断言，上帝给地上万物和众生赐予了名称，所以词是神圣之物，能通神，富有魔力。古代西方观点认为，语言是上帝创造的。在《圣经旧约》的《创世篇》，《圣经新约》的《约翰启示录》里面都谈到了语言的诞生，提到上帝赋予亚当给万物起名的至高权力。

就连一些古代帝王也对人类语言的产生极感兴趣。古埃及的一位国王曾为探究人类最初的语言到底是什么而采取出人意料的办法。有一次，一个孩子降生，他就下令让一个牧人把孩子放到荒郊野外，命令他不许和孩子说任何话，还要一边放羊，一边照顾这个孩子，等这个孩子说第一个词时马上来报告。一年多以后，孩子说出第一个词汇bekos。国王立即召集学者研究这个词的出处，后来发现是弗吉里亚语中面包的意思，国王就认为人类最早开始说的词就是面包。

然而，由于研究文字出现前的语言缺乏可以采信的证据，关于语言的起源问题实际上仅仅停留在猜想之上。19世纪30年代，在法国召开了一次语言类的世界大会，会上做出个决议，认定从苏格拉底、柏拉图到当代，对于语言起源的猜测都是空谈，要求以后禁谈关于语言起源的问题。这个决议一直影响到现在，现代很多语言学家对语言起源不太重视，也很少研究。

可是，一纸决议无法泯灭人类的好奇心，对人类语言学家来说它总是一桩悬案。1934年，土耳其曾经召开全国的语言学大会，研究世界上第一个词到底是什么，与会专家一半猜测，一半比较，提出太阳是人类最早会说的词汇。而其中得出结论的具体过程，因为记载缺失已经弄不太清楚。

语言产生的原因一直众说纷纭，关于人类说出的第一个词到底是什么的争论也从未平息。

到底是什么原因导致了语言的产生呢？这是一个见仁见智的命题。目前有四种比较主要的理论解释语言诞生。第一种观点提出人类语言来自模仿，比如古人类看到荒野中的狗在叫，人类学狗的叫声叫“汪汪”，以后慢慢便用“汪汪”声来指代狗。第二种观点是19世纪初出现的“叮当理论”，即自然主义理论。这种理论认为世界上任何事物都有本质，本质发出声音来都会出现回声，这种回声创造很多词汇，比如英文中的ball，b代表弹性，all代表一种圆滚滚的物体。第三种观点是我们熟悉的马克思主义语言起源理论，认为劳动创造语言，最初的语言是在劳动中从号子发展而来。第四种观点提出语言产生于感情，在表示愤怒、愉快等感情冲击下，强大气流通过声带产生语言，并认为人类基本感情喜怒哀乐发出的声音，形成最基本的词汇。

关于人类最早说出的词汇的争论也从未平息。一位美国语言学家认为，最早出现的语言是名词，应是生活中最常接触的事物，如各种食物；其次应是形容词，比如描述花草、树木特征的东西；第三是呼语，指用来呼叫、表达指令的词汇。这些与交流有关的词汇与人类生存密切相关。此种说法从认知的角度，认定语言的诞生应和人类生存和社会发展有关，确实有一定的科学依据。

还有一些专家是从生理上加以研究，他们发现，m（м、μ）、b（б、μπ）和p（п、π）发音比较容易，这些字母开头词汇，是人类最容易发音的词汇，婴儿即使在没有牙齿时，m（м、μ）、b（б、μπ）和p（п、π）的音都是容易发的，如果这种声音和最先接触的事物相联系，就诞生了最早的词汇。目前是b（б、μπ）、p（п、π）在先还是m（м、μ）开头的单词哪一个在先出现也没有考证，但在西方语言中以m（м、μ）开头的单词占有重要地位确是事实。以英语为例，其中和辅音字母m有关的词汇非常之多，表述生命之源、抚育、关爱、本质、行为、记忆、食物、性格等方面的词汇中，有大量都是m开头的。

世界语言虽然多种多样，但其最初的起源确有惊人的一致性。

“人类的语言能力是内在的，并不是后天获取的，后天获取的只是组织复杂语言的能力。比如小孩要吃奶时，最初发的音是ma-ma 、papa，在印欧语系中mama一词最早就指乳房。另外人类品尝食物时候，发出的声音也与m音有关。由m（或俄语м，希腊语μ）衍生出来的各种词汇比较多，确实说明人类词汇起源与m关系密切。”

有人认为，儿童语言的学习过程是研究古人类学习语言的活标本，其中可参考的内容又有多少呢？朱教授认为，现代婴儿学习语言时人类语言已经产生，常与其接触的父母已经掌握语言。这和原始人类在荒野里的语言产生完全是两回事。社会语言学证明，语言创造的规律是一开始两三个词，后来不断增加。而现代语言的规律不能证明语言是如何产生，到现在为止儿童学习语言的所有数据都不能说明人类语言的起源。

况且父母的说笑表情都会影响婴儿，即使他们会说妈妈也是教育的结果。即使有一个母亲故意不同婴儿讲话，等待孩子自己讲出第一个词，也很难认证人类语言的起源。因为小孩在屋子里，会听到父母之间交流的语言，而人类天生就会模仿，婴儿可能听到只言片语，所以不能证明他说出的第一个就是古人类说出的第一个词。

还有专家讲，将猩猩发出的声音和人类的语言加以比较，希望能还原人类学习语言时的情境，然而这些努力都宣告失败。朱教授指出，灵长目动物能发出9种声音，都跟生存有关，但不是语言。人类表示前边存在危险，可能有几十种说法，而猩猩只能发出“啊”的声音，而且只能重复。人类研究语言曾尝试教猩猩说话，来观察掌握语言是否存在先天因素，结果发现猩猩不具备学习语言的能力，证明语言能力只有人类所独有，而想从猩猩那里查找人类语言的起源的蛛丝马迹自然也没成功。

人类最早的词汇最有可能产生在温带地区，各地区古人类最初说出词汇的意义应该相同。

值得欣慰的是，在对被认为是印欧语系语言之祖的立陶宛语的研究中，专家发现其中最早的词汇有“狼”、“树”以及表述生产工具的词汇。这些在其他语言中得到印证，而表述热带气候情境的词汇并不存在，由此说明最早产生印欧语系语言的时候处于温带，说明人类最早那些词也产生在温带。

词汇的产生和社会息息相关，人类生活中最离不开的词汇，便是最初诞生的词汇。世界各国各地区虽然地域环境不同，发音可能也不同，但是最开始发音的单词意思有相似性，跟吃住有关，这是由语言的社会性决定的。而想彻底摆脱推测，弄清人类语言起源的谜团还需要更新的证据以及语言学、考古学、人类学等领域的专家的共同努力。

完全手工加人工，希望对你有帮助(By xiaotian264)

楼上几位全是机翻的，和楼主另外一篇一样，连标点符号都相同，实在可笑。刚看到有人说楼主给1000分也没人翻，我看你是错了，本人最近要参加一门考试，在百度专找长篇而且有难度的文章翻译，以好热身一下。欢迎大家给我指出不足。先谢谢了。

2 Expression of Emotion

As translation is concerned, the expression in it should be discussed, since the expression of emotion is defined as the foundation of precise translating and complete comprehending over original articles, such problem needs to be taken cautiously to avoid mistakes, which might appear in translation due to the emotional difference between cultures

(1) which way and what kind of language foreigners take in expressing their emotion

We Chinese has the tradition to express our emotion exquisitely within diversity This could be sensed throught celebrity's poems and couplets, which tend to express their ideas in various ways This naturally leads to the question that whether English language share the common characteristics with Chinese in expressing emotion Certainly yes in actual, foreign languages are definitely not rough or lack of ambience in reality, it could be easily detected throught the translation of those competent original articles

And we even found the truth that description to characters in novels like Pride And Prejudice, Lady Chatterley's Lover, Around the World in 80 Days are exquisite and appropriate

(2) Which way we need to follow so as to show our emotion deep within our heart

Man's emotion are undoubtfully abundant, English unlimitedly hold the way to express these abundant emotion accurately like any other languages

We would carry through discussions on the expression of emotion in English

1 When staying in happiness, people tend to laugh, and sometime might use their body language acompanied by several interjections to express themselve unconsciously, like jumping up and raising their hands, take the sentence below for example:

"When facing tremendous happiness, people might build an acclamatory spectacle"

words in it appeared to be more vivid and brief Usually they contain these ones:(楼主没写，我只能留个空白啦)

3Words to express sadness are relative less, it probably because of people prefer to keep quiet when facing sadness Take the sentence below as an example:(楼主没写，还是空白)

4Words to show surprise vary, as the difference in gender and age Generally, men prefer to show their surprise with rough words, and girls might in opposite, children would tend to express their surprise with more accents, like the sentence below:(空白)

(3)What aspects needs to be paid attention to in language application

1)The application of words in translation should locate in related position, so as not to think about their meaning in Chinese But for those beginners, when such logical ideas stay in absence, measurements are necessary And the deep meaning needs to be assured not to confuse with their superficial idea, these required you to be cautious in the expression, take the example followed " experienced sadness, passed by the obstacle of bitterness, finnally hit the target to" Beginners usually translate it with the phrase "walk through" without consideration over the English idea of the phrase So, take "Get through the tough time and misery" into consideration, don't you think it's more fluent than before In the final analysis, words are extraordinary important, we need to acquire the meaning as well as the usage of them Upon such foundation, much absurdness could be gotten rid of

2) Accurate words in expressing given emotion and given spirit are hardly to be found, in tackling such problems, we could take our surrounding for reference, to find something as a carrier For example, we now need to experss the idea of generous devotion, candle could be taken into reference, with it as the mirror, the effection of our translation might be far more superior These have a close relation with our daily observation, and of course our imagination or association

人类的脸部表情表达着人的情感。就是说，当一个人在一种。。。（看不清了）状态时，表情就表现在脸上了。这些表情都具有一些能察觉到的特点，比如具有普遍性，一定有个基本的表达，不经思考的特性。

这些表情非常普遍，在世界任何一个角落，人们会因为苦恼而哭泣，高兴而笑，以及当恼怒或蔑视时皱眉。因为每个人对于不同事件的表情反馈都是一样的---对死亡感到悲哀，对成功凯旋感到高兴---每人都会是这样的表现，这是人性的体现。

我们一共有六种情感的表达---高兴，悲伤，愤怒，惊讶，恐惧以及。。。（看不清），其他表达都是根据这些演化而来的。达尔文提出一个有意思的见解，他认为这些基本的面部表情是为了适应环境。本质上，这些表情都是在。。。（看不清）或模仿动物表情。比如人的冷笑，就是由。。。（看不清）不露齿的咆哮而来。所以面部表情就是进化的产物，许多人类表情都和一些高级动物相似，尤其是猿类。

面部表情也是自发的，不自觉的，在生物学上这些表情。。。（看不清）。特定的化学成分以及肌肉反应让我们表露出特定的面部表情。针对婴儿的测试证明了当尝到难吃的（猜测）食物时会表达一种被恶心到的表情，当尝到甜食时会笑。更进一步的说，科学家们认为（猜测）我们所有的感官，情感以及思想都是由大脑控制下产生的化学成分的产物。我们身体里的一些特定的化学成分，比如苯乙胺（括号里的看不清），会触发神经作用，导致我们不停的笑或兴奋。

We Chinese people express emotions, mostly implicit bias, just leave people thinking, guess room for words to express their viewsUnlike Europeans and unassuming, plain talkOne is the Chinese people to other people when it comes to when it comes to own business, often using "respects", such as when sent to others is a gift, presentation said that "sending a little gift, not a tribute ”And the Europeans are not so, they even sent a little gift, to say "I have sent to you are beautiful, precious gift ”, Western like this instead of performance, there are many, many

This situation was formed after a long history of environmentalAround 2,500 years ago, Laozi advocated "sound thin", Confucius, when finishing note to the history of the spring and Autumn Annals, "a style of writing in which sublime words with deep meaning are used" to "line by line", is to use a method described in veiled terms to facts suggesting that one occurredSong dynasty writer Ouyang Xiu, the editor of the new book of Tang, the new history of the five dynasties time, Confucius also renewed style, extensive use of implied "a style of writing in which sublime words with deep meaning are used" to describe historyThis is culture in the history of our common style, of course, will lead to civil partners in working practices

Recently I looked my reading notes, see a recorded song Luo Ye (people of Luling, today jiangxijian) edit a note book in an old drunkard on record of a seven quatrains, proved once again in veiled terms of performance practices, not only in the history books, in most people's views have also become used to itThis poem is saying: "Kai Kiss under the green screen, a paper from scratch completely emptyExpect penny Lang Huai don't hate, recalling the people speak ”This is used to express the most sincere feelings of ordinary people in China, it can make people enjoy endless aftertastesIf, as Europeans did, wrote a letter to miss his wife's letters, in order to express the "Miss deep", wrote at great length, its center was a "love" WordThis and Chinese people the implicit expression was so immeasurably!Chinese "is not a Word, very style", not only saving and concentratedHow smart people!--Of course, it is said that on the bright side

Chinese convey emotion in veiled terms there are dangerous sideIt is very easy to cause someone else's misconceptionsIf that is the case of a wise man, and he (she) and accurate understanding, that effect is good;However, if a less clever, or understand a bit misplaced people, would probably have had a misunderstandingFor example, a woman received his letter came Lang Chun, top without a Word, may have a stupid girl thinks its Lang Chun parted company with her too!If this woman was disappointed, emotions or out of control, very serious consequences

Therefore, westerly winds to the East of trends in China todayIs a straightforward way to express emotions in the West, also influence the ChineseYou see, today young people in love, than their parents was straightforward, unobtrusive components decliningIn this way, instead of emotional expression and Western fusion, if they can get in the Middle, it is a very good folk

The "four employees incentive model"

How to create the best employee performance is manager for a long time of challenge In recent years, the neural science, biology and evolution of interdisciplinary research areas such as psychology, humans have told us four basic emotional needs, and the force driving or what we all the basis of their behavior The empirical research shows that, by the employee can create better performance Therefore, to motivate employees, managers should understand the driving force and can take what measures to meet the driving force

Get people always try to get some things, to increase the scarcity of his happiness When the force satisfied, we will feel happy, Conversely, it will feel dissatisfied This force is often the relative (we always compare themselves with others), and it was difficult to satisfy (we always want more)

Many animals are combined with their parents and relatives or close relationship between population, but establish the relationship between human expanded into larger groups, such as organization, community and national "Driving", people will generate loving, caring, strong positive emotions, etc Conversely, it will appear as negative emotional loneliness, cynical In the work environment, when the staff for oneself is a member of the organization are proud of their motivation and will greatly improve, And when they had rebelled against their will and morale

We are eager to understand about the world around them, and then put forward various theories to explain all things, and put forward the reasonable action and countermeasures When things seem pointless, we will feel frustrated, While looking for answers to questions, the challenge will let us full of passion In the working environment, workers work done if challenging, and allows them to grow and learn, they will be incentive, And when they do look no value or no future, will be demoralized

In the face of threats defense, to protect themselves, to protect our property and achievements, family and friends, thoughts and beliefs, it is natural to us This force is rooted in the "fight but fled" basic response, this is common, but most animals to humans, it not only the offensive or defensive behavior, but also to build a system to promote seek justice, clear goals and intention, and allow people to speak freely This force have been fulfilled, people think and self-confidence, otherwise will fear and hate strong negative affection

These four drivers are independent of each other, no secondary, also cannot substitute mutually To fully motivate employees, managers must satisfy all four driving force In fact, every emotional force can use different organizations leverage to satisfy the most effectively

Reward system "gain" the most easily through the organization of driving system of rewards Of course, it also depends on the organization's reward system can effectively define employee performance, will reward with different performance, and give the best chance of promotion of personnel

Culture to meet the "combination" force among employees, cultivating strong friendship, the most effective way is to establish a promote teamwork, cooperation, open and friendly culture

Post design satisfy "understanding" force is the optimal way to design a meaningful and have fun and challenging positions

Performance management and resource allocation process fairness, credible, transparent, performance management and resource allocation process, help satisfy people's "defensive driving"

In addition, the direct supervisor for employees and motivational degrees plays an important role as organizational policy Although do not expect to staff the whole company boss incentive system, culture, post design or management system exerting significant effect, but they clearly superior in their influence within the scope of a certain power For example, in recognition, managers can select and tasks, the rewards and employee performance

In the organization of managers only under the condition of the utmost efforts to satisfy all four driving force, the employee can most effectively improve the incentive effect on employees, improve the organizational performance

Emotions are godsend treasures for us to laugh with, to cry with, to bathe with in sorrows and happiness and for us to get acquainted

人工智能领域的下一个重大突破将不在于使计算机具有更高的逻辑水平，而在于赋予其人类的“感情”。

通常来说，无生命的机器是不会有感觉的，但麻省理工大学计算机系的Posalind Picard教授认为，计算机要更有效的工作，“感情”是必不可少的。她说，计算机需要被赋予一定的人造感情，以此更好的领会用户的要求，同时也能更好的自我分析、自我发展。

“如果我们想让计算机变得更聪明，与人更协调，更自然的交流，它们就必须拥有认知和表达感情的能力，拥有自己的感情，或者说‘感情智能’。”

Picard教授举例说，感情对于计算机的作用之一，可以防止系统崩溃。现在的计算机经常出现错误，当某些地方出现问题的时候，计算机是没有那个智力去觉察或者做出反应的。而对死亡的恐惧可以促使计算机在问题出现的时候继续制造更大的错误。另一方面，计算机自我保护系统必须建立在为人类服务的前提之下。在2002年的一部科幻**A Ssace Odyssey里，计算机RAL由于惧怕自身的死亡，而杀死了它的人类伙伴。

同样的，能读懂人类感情的计算机可以保存更多更深层次的个人信息，不仅是我们说过的做过的东西，还包括我们的想法。“感情不仅对人机互动有帮助，同时也在影响着人类与人工智能相互交流的能力。”Picard教授说，“情感，尤其是认知和表达情感的能力，是计算机与人类进行自然交流的关键因素。”