求英国浪漫主义、超验主义和自然主义的英文定义

ROMANTICISM is a term loosely applied to literary and artistic movements of the late 18th and 19th cent

Characteristics of Romanticism

Resulting in part from the libertarian and egalitarian ideals of the French Revolution, the romantic movements had in common only a revolt against the prescribed rules of classicism The basic aims of romanticism were various: a return to nature and to belief in the goodness of humanity; the rediscovery of the artist as a supremely individual creator; the development of nationalistic pride; and the exaltation of the senses and emotions over reason and intellect In addition, romanticism was a philosophical revolt against rationalism

Romanticism in Literature

England

Although in literature romantic elements were known much earlier, as in the Elizabethan dramas, many critics now date English literary romanticism from the publication of Wordsworth and Coleridge's Lyrical Ballads (1798) In the preface to the second edition of that influential work (1800), Wordsworth stated his belief that poetry results from "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings," and pressed for the use of natural everyday diction in literary works Coleridge emphasized the importance of the poet's imagination and discounted adherence to arbitrary literary rules

Such English romantic poets as Byron, Shelley, Robert Burns, Keats, Robert Southey, and William Cowper often focused on the individual self, on the poet's personal reaction to life This emphasis can also be found in such prose works as the essays of Charles Lamb and William Hazlitt and in Thomas De Quincey's autobiographical Confessions of an English Opium Eater (1822) The interest of romantics in the medieval period as a time of mystery, adventure, and aspiration is evidenced in the Gothic romance and in the historical novels of Sir Walter Scott William Blake was probably the most singular of the English romantics His poems and paintings are radiant, imaginative, and heavily symbolic, indicating the spiritual reality underlying the physical reality

TRANSCENDENTALISM, American literary

in literature, philosophical and literary movement that flourished in New England from about 1836 to 1860 It originated among a small group of intellectuals who were reacting against the orthodoxy of Calvinism and the rationalism of the Unitarian Church, developing instead their own faith centering on the divinity of humanity and the natural world Transcendentalism derived some of its basic idealistic concepts from romantic German philosophy, notably that of Immanuel Kant, and from such English authors as Carlyle, Coleridge, and Wordsworth Its mystical aspects were partly influenced by Indian and Chinese religious teachings Although transcendentalism was never a rigorously systematic philosophy, it had some basic tenets that were generally shared by its adherents The beliefs that God is immanent in each person and in nature and that individual intuition is the highest source of knowledge led to an optimistic emphasis on individualism, self-reliance, and rejection of traditional authority

The ideas of transcendentalism were most eloquently expressed by Ralph Waldo Emerson in such essays as "Nature" (1836), "Self-Reliance," and "The Over-Soul" (both 1841), and by Henry David Thoreau in his book Walden (1854) The movement began with the occasional meetings of a group of friends in Boston and Concord to discuss philosophy, literature, and religion Originally calling themselves the Hedge Club (after one of the members), they were later dubbed the Transcendental Club by outsiders because of their discussion of Kant's "transcendental" ideas Besides Emerson and Thoreau, its most famous members, the club included F H Hedge, George Ripley, Bronson Alcott, Margaret Fuller, Theodore Parker, and others For several years much of their writing was published in The Dial (18404), a journal edited by Fuller and Emerson The cooperative community Brook Farm (18417) grew out of their ideas on social reform, which also found expression in their many individual actions against slavery Primarily a movement seeking a new spiritual and intellectual vitality, transcendentalism had a great impact on American literature, not only on the writings of the group's members, but on such diverse authors as Hawthorne, Melville, and Whitman

NATURALISM, in literature

an approach that proceeds from an analysis of reality in terms of natural forces, eg, heredity, environment, physical drives The chief literary theorist on naturalism was Émile Zola, who said in his essay Le Roman expérimental (1880) that the novelist should be like the scientist, examining dispassionately various phenomena in life and drawing indisputable conclusions The naturalists tended to concern themselves with the harsh, often sordid, aspects of life Notable naturalists include the Goncourt brothers, J K Huysmans, Maupassant, the English authors George Moore and George Gissing, and the American writers Theodore Dreiser, Frank Norris, Stephen Crane, James T Farrell, and James Jones In the drama, naturalism developed in the late 19th cent By stressing photographic detail in scene design, costume, and acting technique, it attempted to abolish the artificial theatricality prominent in 19th-century theater The movement was most closely associated with the Théâtre Libre (founded 1887) of André Antoine, with the Freie Bühne (founded 1889) of Otto Brahm, and with the Moscow Art Theatre (founded 1898) under the direction of Stanislavsky Notable naturalistic dramatists include Becque, Brieux, Hauptmann, and Gorky

Romanticism (or the Romantic era/Period) was an artistic, literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Europe and strengthened in reaction to the Industrial Revolution